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Contribution of Public Lands

Extent of Public Lands in the South

Public land comprises approximately 11 percent of timberland in the South (Chapter HLTH-1). The distribution of public land between States varies considerably (Figure 23). For example, national forests occupy 3 percent of the timberland in Alabama and Georgia but 13 percent of the timberland in Arkansas (U. S. Department of Agriculture 2000b).

Forest Inventory and Analysis data indicate that 4 million acres of timberland are managed by States, 1 million acres by counties and municipalities, and 16 million acres by Federal agencies (U. S. Department of Agriculture 2000b). State land is contained in State parks, wildlife management areas, State forests, and State natural resource areas. Counties and municipalities hold land in local parks and recreation areas, many of which contribute importantly to the conservation of habitat.

The primary Federal land management agencies in the South are the USDA Forest Service, the National Park Service, and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Figure 24). Federal land is concentrated in the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains, with less land in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain. The Forest Service manages approximately 60 percent of the Southern Blue Ridge, the eastern edge of the Appalachian Mountain chain. In contrast, less than one-tenth of the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain is under Federal management.

National Parks and the National Park Service

The idea of preserving Federal land in National Parks is rooted in the conservation movement of the late 1800s. Created in 1916, the mission of National Park Service was to conserve scenic, natural, and historic resources (Loomis 1993). Congress precluded timber harvesting, mining, and livestock grazing.

In the 1960s, the Leopold Report shifted this preservation philosophy towards ecological management (Loomis 1993). Parks were managed to restore a more natural appearance, and visitor development was directed to areas outside the parks. Park policies allowed fire as a management tool for maintaining the park environment. Recreational activities were limited based upon soil and vegetation characteristics, concerns about water quality, and sensitivity of wildlife to human presence. Still, on National Park Service land there is ongoing conflict between preserving the natural environment and providing for visitor use.

The Agency's current mandate is to perpetuate native plant communities; manipulation of vegetation is kept to a minimum. Species management objectives include the provision of self-regulating populations. Impacts on animal populations are avoided with restrictions on the removal of individual animals.

In 2000, the Park Service managed 97 properties in the South totaling over 5 million acres (Table 14). These properties are in seven different designations, each of which is managed with different objectives. National Parks contain outstanding natural features and generally are of a sufficient size to ensure protection from outside influences. National Preserves also protect selected natural features, but allow uses such as hunting or mining if they do not impair the resources of the preserve. National Seashores protect water-related areas of natural significance that occur on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. National Recreation Areas emphasize recreational use. Recreational Areas also may exist on National Forests. National Parkways protect scenic resources along travel corridors such as the Blue Ridge Parkway. National Monuments and National Historic Sites (including National Battlefields) are established to commemorate historical events (Loomis 1993).

The following area accounts describe selected Park Service properties that provide valuable habitat for a variety of species in the South. Many areas contain impressive vertebrate diversity or provide examples of applied conservation biology. Property information is summarized from U. S. Department of Interior (2001c).

Buffalo National River, Arkansas. The Buffalo River is one of the few remaining unpolluted, free-flowing rivers in the South. Stretching 135 miles, the Buffalo River cuts its way through massive limestone bluffs in the Ozark Mountains. The National River has three designated wilderness areas within its boundaries.

Ninety-five thousand acres furnish habitat for 250 species of birds and a variety of animals. It also contains 70 mines that provide important habitat for gray, Indiana, and Ozark big-eared bats. The Buffalo National River also is along the migration route of the federally listed Eskimo Curlew.

Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. This park was established in 1941 to preserve one of the longest known cave systems (336 miles) in the nation. The park also was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1981 and an International Biosphere Reserve in 1990.

The park’s 52,830 acres support a variety of plants and animals including several bat species of conservation concern: southeastern bat, Rafinesque’s big-eared bat, and eastern small-footed bat. There are several State-listed reptiles, including the northern coal skink, glass lizard, and the northern pine snake. Among the 872 flowering species that have been confirmed are 21 listed plants.

Congaree Swamp National Monument, South Carolina. This monument was established to protect the largest remaining tract of virgin bottomland hardwood wetlands in the South. The monument is an International Biosphere Reserve, a National Natural Landmark, a Wilderness Area, and a Continentally Important Bird Area.

Biodiversity is very high within the Congaree's 22,000 acres. Amphibians that thrive in the deep floodplain sloughs include the marbled salamander, the eastern newt, the southern dusky salamander, and the greater siren. Frogs include the southern leopard frog and the chorus frog. One hundred and seventy-three species of birds occur in the Monument, including several of conservation concern. Among these are the barred owl, pileated woodpecker, and Swainson’s warbler. At different seasons of the year, prothonotory warblers, Mississippi kites, and herons use the refuge. In addition, Congaree Swamp supports important sites for the silver-haired bat, hoary bat, Brazilian free-tailed bat, Rafinesque's big-eared bat, and southeastern bat.

Feral hogs in the park are placing this unique resource at risk. Wetland communities are subject to severe damage from hog rooting and other behavior.

Great Smoky Mountain National Park, NC and TN. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is one of the largest protected areas in the South (521,621 acres) and is world-renowned for the diversity of its plant and animal resources and the integrity of the wilderness within its boundaries. Established as a national park in 1934, it was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and a World Heritage Site in 1983.

The park protects some of the world’s finest temperate deciduous forests. Due to the fertile soil and abundant rain, this area boasts 1,650 species of flowers and trees, 50 mammal species, and 27 different salamanders. Migrating birds abound in late spring.

Existing and impending threats in the park include invasion by exotic species, air pollution, and forest diseases. Since fire suppression was initiated in the 1930s, oak regeneration has been minimal at some sites with adverse consequences for mast-utilizing species.

Big Thicket National Preserve, Texas. Big Thicket was the first Preserve in the National Park System to protect an area of rich biological diversity. Established in 1974, it also was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve. The Preserve consists of nine land units and six water corridors encompassing more than 97,191 acres. The Big Thicket is rich in biological resources and contains swamps, bayous, pine savanna, sandhills, plains, and desert.

Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. This park extends along the Blue Ridge Mountains, encompassing over 198,000 acres. The oak-hickory forest is inhabited by deer, black bear, bobcat, and wild turkey. Species such as the chipmunk, groundhog, raccoon, skunk, opossum, and gray squirrel are frequently detected. Approximately 200 species of birds have been recorded, including flycatchers, thrushes, vireos, 35 species of warblers, and migrating hawks. Permanent residents include ruffed grouse, barred owl, raven, woodpeckers, and junco. The park also supports several salamander species and two poisonous snakes, the timber rattlesnake and the copperhead snake.

The hemlock woolly adelgid, an exotic insect, currently jeopardizes the eastern hemlocks in the park. First detected 10 years ago, the adelgid is an aphid-like insect that sucks sap from branches of the hemlock. The tree loses strength and sheds its needles, and often does not survive (Chapter HLTH-2).

Blue Ridge Parkway, North Carolina and Virginia. The Blue Ridge Parkway consists of 469 miles of road and protects the natural features of the Blue Ridge while connecting the Shenandoah National Park with the Great Smoky Mountains. The parkway encompasses 88,734 acres.

The parkway supports several species of rare plants and animals. Some of these, such as the Peaks of Otter Salamander and the Blue Ridge goldenrod, do not occur in other Southern areas. Ponds and wetlands near the Parkway provide essential habitat for amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

Many neotropical migrant species return to the Parkway each spring. These include the scarlet tanager, veery, wood thrush, and Kentucky warbler. The autumn hawk migration also occurs along the Blue Ridge Parkway. Raptors recorded include the American kestrel, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, broad-winged hawk, golden eagle, and peregrine falcon.

National wildlife refuges and the Fish and Wildlife Service

A network of lands set aside for wildlife began in 1903 with the designation of Pelican Island, Florida, as the first National Wildlife Refuge. The Fish and Wildlife Service has responsibility for the Refuge System. Refuge objectives include the provision and enhancement of habitat, perpetuation of migratory bird resources, preservation of natural diversity, and restoration of endangered and threatened species.

Land is acquired for game refuges, waterfowl production areas, and other reasons. Many refuges were created under the authority of the Endangered Species Act, providing anchors for biodiversity and ecosystem-level conservation. These areas have been instrumental in the recovery of several species including the whooping crane, Key deer, and American crocodile.

The Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929 directed the Agency to purchase areas as refuges for migratory birds. In 1934, the Duck Stamp program established permanent funds for the acquisition of waterfowl habitats. The System has an outstanding record for the successful management of these species. The emphasis on migratory birds has now expanded to include colonial water birds, birds of prey, shorebirds, seabirds, and songbirds.

The earliest form of management consisted of law enforcement and periodic counts of wildlife. As the system expanded, there was an evolution from habitat management for a few species to ecosystem management. For example, planting vegetation for ducks evolved to planting an array of native grasses and forbs to rebuild prairie diversity. Prescribed fire was incorporated to reduce hazardous fuel loads and restore vegetation communities. Management has been altered to mimic natural disturbance for maintenance of a diversity of habitats.

One hundred and seventy two refuges spread across the South encompass approximately 4 million acres (Table 15). The greatest concentration of wildlife refuges is in Florida and along the Mississippi and Atlantic flyways. Hundreds of species of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians are supported by the diversity of habitats in the Refuge System. Several of these properties are discussed in greater detail in the following section. Information on species and communities are summarized from U. S. Department of the Interior (2000d).

Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge. This refuge supports a variety of habitats, including cypress forests, swamps, pine forests, hardwood hammocks, prairies, marshes, and sloughs. Permanent and seasonal wetlands cover a majority of the refuge area (26,529 acres). The refuge is closed to the public to minimize disturbance to the Florida panther population that occurs there.

There are several listed species on the refuge. Mammals include the Florida panther and Florida black bear. Avian species include the wood stork, snail kite, bald eagle, and Florida grasshopper sparrow. The American alligator, eastern indigo snake, striped mud turtle, and loggerhead sea turtle are reptiles of conservation concern.

Habitat management objectives center on the provision of optimum conditions for the panther. Other objectives include restoration of natural diversity and implementation of environmental education programs promoting Florida panther and South Florida ecosystems.

St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. This 12,490-acre island refuge is a red wolf propagation site. Additional endangered and threatened species that occur on St. Vincent Island include the bald eagle, piping plover, wood stork, eastern indigo snake, and loggerhead sea turtle.

The primary refuge objective is management and preservation of the natural barrier island and associated native plant and animal communities. Additional management objectives include the provision of habitat for migratory birds, and protection of listed species.

Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia. Established in 1936, the Okefenokee Refuge covers 391,402 acres. The swamp contains numerous islands and lakes, along with vast areas of nonforested terrain. Prairies cover approximately 60,000 acres of the swamp. Once forested, these marsh expanses were created during periods of severe drought when fires burned vegetation and surface layers of peat.

A wide variety of bird species are supported. The prairies harbor a variety of wading birds, including herons, egrets, white ibis, sandhill cranes, wood storks, and bitterns. Scrub-shrub areas support various warblers.

Refuge objectives encompass protection of the unique environmental qualities of the Okefenokee ecosystem, and the provision of optimum habitat for a wide diversity of fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

Tensas River National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana. This refuge lies in the upper basin of the Tensas River in northeastern Louisiana. It includes the site of the last documented sighting of the ivory-billed woodpecker. The refuge supports 65,746 acres of woodlands, croplands, reforested agricultural fields, and open water. The area also is home to the threatened Louisiana black bear.

Management objectives include water management for waterfowl, wading birds, and shorebirds. Cooperative farming provides habitat for migratory birds and bear. Deer are managed via public hunting.

Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, North Carolina. This 156,125-acre refuge was established to preserve a unique wetland habitat type, the pocosin, and its associated terrestrial species. Diversity of habitat types includes bogs, fresh water and brackish marshes, hardwood swamps, and Atlantic white cedar swamps. Plant species include pitcher plants, sun dews, low-bush cranberries, bays, pond pine, red maple, and a wide variety of herbaceous and shrub species common to the South.

Refuge objectives center on the preservation of the unique wetland and the provision of habitat for the red wolf, red-cockaded woodpecker, American alligator, black bear, waterfowl, and for other migratory birds.

Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge. This refuge occupies 19,713 acres of pine-savanna habitat interspersed with cypress, rivers and marsh on the Coastal Plain of Mississippi. Water bodies such as Perigal Bayou, Old Fort Bayou, and Bluff Creek flow through various units of the refuge. Approximately 100 endangered sandhill cranes inhabit the refuge.

Refuge objectives center on the provision of habitat for the sandhill cranes and protection of the diverse savanna communities used by cranes. Crane management includes population monitoring, captive bird release, predator control, and law enforcement. Habitat restoration is accomplished via prescribed burning, vegetation manipulation, and noxious weed control.

White River National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas. Established in 1935, the White River Refuge contains the largest contiguous block of bottomland hardwood forest under a single ownership in the South.

White River supports one of the largest concentrations of wintering mallard ducks in the Mississippi flyway on its 154,856 acres. Numerous species of wading birds, shorebirds, geese, neotropical migrants, and raptors (including the bald eagle) also inhabit the area.

Refuge objectives center on the provision of optimum habitat for migratory bird and resident species, and support for a diversity of species common to the White River bottoms.

National Forests and the Forest Service

The USDA Forest Service was established in 1905 to provide quality water and timber for the Nation. In the subsequent years, the Service embodied the concept of multiple uses. Multiple uses refer to resource management that benefits a variety of purposes while ensuring the productivity and quality of the environment. Benefits include, the provision of water, forage, wildlife, wood, and recreation.

The Weeks Act authorized purchase of lands for the National Forest System especially deforested land, which would be reforested for watershed protection. The Clark-McNary Act (1924) further allowed the agency to purchase private land that was potentially valuable for timberland production. Acquisitions under the Weeks and Clark-McNary Act further added area to the National Forest System.

The mission of the Forest Service centers on four primary objectives: protection and management of natural resources on National Forest System land; research on forests and forest resource utilization; assistance to State and local governments, forest industry, and private landowners for land management; and international assistance for the management of forest resources (Loomis 1993). The Forest Service has recently issued policies for preservation of old growth and maintenance of biological diversity.

National forests are found in 13 Southern States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands (Table 16). Over 15 million acres in the South are managed by the Forest Service. National forest ownership ranges from 27,831 acres in Puerto Rico to 2,586,074 acres in Arkansas. In addition to Arkansas, the greatest concentrations of national forest are in Virginia (1,660,428 acres), Mississippi (1,158,967 acres), and Florida (1,152,824 acres). Hundreds of animals and plants are supported by the diversity of habitats in the National Forest System.

Roadless Areas. Roadless areas comprise nearly 1 million acres of the Southern National Forests (Table 17). Substantial acreages with this designation are in Virginia (394,000 acres) and North Carolina (172,000 acres). Roadless areas have a range of habitat types and successional seres. Habitat tends to be contiguous, providing refuge from human disturbance that can disrupt species movement and reproduction.

These areas possess ecological characteristics that are rare in developed landscapes, such as large, relatively undisturbed blocks of habitat (U. S. Department of Agriculture 2000c). Invasion of exotic species, erosion, sedimentation, and disruption of water flow are often less likely in roadless than in roaded areas. Species richness may be improved in roadless areas that are large enough to offer a mosaic of habitat patches in various successional stages following disturbance.

Wilderness Areas. Wilderness areas cover 698,513 acres in the South (Table 18). Arkansas (116,937 acres), Georgia (114,789 acres), and North Carolina (103,226 acres) have the largest amounts of wilderness in the South (U. S. Department of Agriculture 2000a). The Wilderness Act requires that these areas retain their primeval character without permanent developments or human habitation. Roads, timber harvesting, and motorized access are prohibited, but hunting and fishing are permitted.

One objective of managing wilderness is to preserve naturally functioning ecosystems. Relatively large blocks of undisturbed habitat are rare in the South. These are of particular importance to mammals that have large home ranges. Importantly, wilderness contributes to understanding wildlife in an unmanaged setting.