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Historical Conditions

The presettlement landscape of the South was quite diverse: forests of different ages were interspersed with expansive savannahs, dense cane thickets, barrens, and swamps. Disturbance was a major influence on the composition of southern forests, creating forest openings and resetting succession (Lorimer 2001). Forests were dynamic; natural succession progressed with shade-tolerant plants replacing pioneer species. Periodic flooding and associated sedimentation influenced the distribution and composition of local areas.

Frequent thunderstorms provided a source of natural fires, resulting in a landscape of mixed species composition. Lightning fires burned unabated (Williams 1989). Fire frequency and intensity were dominant forces (Refer to the Fire Background Paper). Fire was important for the persistence of many communities including pine forests, oak-hickory forests, savannas, barrens, and prairies (Trani and others 2001).

Native Americans, through use of fire and crop cultivation (Delcourt and Delcourt 1987; Buckner 1989), further modified the composition and open character of the forest. Fires were frequently set to create openings for crops and to drive game for harvest. The effects of native inhabitation on southern forests were extensive (Refer to the History Background Paper).

Wildlife of the presettlement South was quite impressive. Dickson (2001) describes large herds of bison and elk roaming throughout the prairies and savannas of the region. White-tailed deer and wild turkey also were numerous. Large carnivores (black bear, cougar, red wolf, and bobcat) were abundant and a diversity of successional seres supported a variety of prey populations. Other mammals included mink, muskrat, river otter, beaver, gray fox, red fox, spotted skunk, long-tailed weasel, bats, and numerous small mammals.

Birds present in today's forests also were likely present during presettlement (Dickson 2001). Raptors such as the Mississippi kite, bald eagle, osprey, red-shouldered hawk, and barred owl were likely occupants of historic bottomland forests. The Swainson’s and Bachman's warblers inhabited cane thickets, while the yellow-breasted chat and indigo bunting populated young forests. Cavity-nesting birds such as red-headed woodpeckers, American kestrels, and great crested flycatchers were abundant in the old-growth forests of eastern Texas (Truett and Lay 1984). The ivory-billed woodpecker thrived in oak-gum forests, foraging on snags for insects.

Early records of reptiles and amphibians are limited, but these records make frequent reference to rattlesnakes and alligators (Dickson 2001). Historic forest habitats appear to have supported viable, diverse populations of herpetofauna (Gibbons and Buhlman 2001).

Extensive inundated bottomland forests supported habitat for millions of wood ducks and mallards (Heitmeyer 2001). Wood ducks commonly nested in the cavities of abundant old-growth forests. Hooded mergansers, green-winged teal, gadwall, and American widgeon also frequented flooded bottoms.

The southern landscape changed dramatically with the advent of European settlers. Settlement resulted in the extensive clearing of forest and conversion of the land to pasture or cropland (DeGraaf and Miller 1996). These lands were often managed with fire, which was also used to maintain savannas and other open areas in the East (Williams 1989). In particular, fire was used to create favorable grazing conditions for domestic animals (Healy 1985).

By 1819, all land was claimed east of the Mississippi River (Dickson 2001). Natural resources were treated as if they were inexhaustible. Forests were cut with little thought for forest regeneration, and soils were seriously depleted through erosion and excessive cropping. Wildlife species and their habitat were likewise exploited without concern for their persistence. The decline in abundance of wildlife that occurred during the last half of the 19^th century remains unparalleled in the history of the South.

Deer populations nationwide plummeted to less than a million animals by 1900 (Dickson 2001). Bison and elk disappeared from the region. The wild turkey disappeared from several States within its range. The wood duck was drastically reduced by indiscriminate harvest. Populations of large carnivores, regarded as threats to livestock and people, were decimated and viable populations of black bear and cougar were relegated to relatively remote areas.

The loss of bottomland forest in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley affected waterfowl and other species that were displaced into adjacent areas. Harvests of the passenger pigeon and the Carolina parakeet for market led to their demise in the early 1900s (Table 1). Market hunting, the domestication of land, and the harvest of mature forests without regeneration led to the extirpation of some species in various Southern States (Table 2). (Note: It is possible that some species were extirpated because their range is on the periphery of the region. Their loss may be related to random effects associated with low populations at the edges of their ranges).

During the 1930s and 1940s, the States recognized the dire status of wildlife populations and initiated efforts to address the problem. The Duck Stamp Act (1934), the Pittman-Robertson Act (1937), and the Dingle-Johnson Act (1950) apportioned funds to States for wildlife restoration projects, habitat acquisition, and research.

These efforts came too late for some species (Table 1). The ivory-billed woodpecker foraged in mature bottomland hardwoods along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Its diet consisted of wood-boring insect larvae occurring in dead and dying trees. Over-hunting and intensive harvesting of virgin hardwood forests between the 1880s and 1920s led to the decline of this species (U.S. Department of Interior 1973).

Bachman's warbler, last observed in the 1960s, once inhabited Arkansas, Kentucky, Alabama, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Missouri. The extensive clearing of bamboo and canebreak habitat for agriculture along the Mississippi River and West Gulf Coastal Plains bottom the wintering and breeding habitat for this species (Ehrlich and others 1992). Excessive collecting for the millinery trade may also have contributed to the decline.

The Valdina Farms salamander was endemic to Texas. The amphibian occurred in isolated, intermittent pools. It is now extinct due to flooding of its only known habitat. Populations of the West Indian monk seal, which originally inhabited the Florida coast, were decimated during the 19^th century. The major factor in its extermination was over-hunting, principally for blubber (to make oil) and for meat. The seal's inherent tameness increased its vulnerability to slaughter.

The last four decades of the 20^th century brought legislation that furthered species conservation efforts, including the Wilderness Act (1964), the Endangered Species Act (1966, 1969, and 1973), the National Environmental Policy Act (1970), the Marine Mammal Protection Act (1971), and the National Forest Management Act (1976). Through these and several other conservation efforts, conditions for many species have improved across the South (Dickson 2001). However, the loss and modification of unique forest communities continues to affect populations of other species. The remainder of this Chapter examines these influences, presenting the current status and trends for a diversity of southern species.