4.3 Reptiles

The reptiles of the South belong to three orders: Crocodilia (alligators and crocodiles), Squamata (lizards, amphisbaenians, and snakes), and Testudinata (turtles). The South supports a diversity of reptiles (Figure 5), including 89 snakes (11 endemic), 75 lizards (6 endemic), 29 turtles (13 endemic), and 4 other reptiles (including 2 crocodilians). The number of reptile species ranges from 155 in Texas to 54 in Kentucky (NatureServe 2000). Species richness is impressive in Florida (94), Alabama (87), Georgia (87), and Mississippi (86).

The South's Coastal Plain possesses North America's highest diversity of reptiles (Gibbons and others 1997, White and others 1998). Twenty-nine percent of southern reptiles are classified as endemic (Dodd 1995a).

Reptiles occupy forest, fresh water, marine, and urban habitats. Most use the same habitat for breeding and nonbreeding activities, but aquatic and marine species require adjacent terrestrial habitats in order to successfully reproduce.

The forested mountain regions also support an abundance of reptiles, including worm snakes, copperheads, ring-neck snakes, bog turtles, and coal skinks. The longleaf pine-wiregrass community is vital habitat for the gopher tortoise and important habitat for mole skinks, glass lizards, scarlet snakes, pine snakes, and coachwhip snakes. Cypress-gum swamps are home to rainbow snakes, mud snakes, western green watersnakes, and striped crawfish snakes (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). Some reptiles play important roles in southern communities in nutrient cycling. Their burrows provide refuges for other species during extreme climatic conditions.

The numbers of turtles in Mississippi (31), Texas (30), Alabama (30), Georgia (27), Louisiana (26), and Florida (26) reflect the abundance of coastal and freshwater habitats. Numbers of lizard species in Texas (51) and Florida (38) far surpass the richness in other Southern States (NatureServe 2000). Both States are relatively large and have a wide variety of habitats in them. The number of lizards residing in the remaining States ranges from 17 species in Oklahoma to 8 species in Kentucky.

The number of snakes tends to be highest in the southernmost Coastal States. There are 73 in Texas, 46 in Florida, 42 in Alabama, 42 in Mississippi, 41 in Georgia, and 41 in South Carolina. Species richness in the Mountain States is slightly lower. Virginia supports 30 snake species. Snakes reach their highest diversities in southern forests and their peripheral habitats, such as rivers, streams, and isolated wetlands.

Seventeen species of reptiles are listed as threatened or endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Table 8). In addition, numerous reptiles are classified as imperiled or vulnerable by the Natural Heritage Agencies (CHAPTER TERRA-1). Many of these species occur on the Coastal Plain; several are narrowly restricted endemics.

Although the variation in life-history traits is quite marked, many species of reptiles have long lives, variable reproductive rates, and high mortality among eggs and neonates. Such combinations of life-history characteristics are particularly common among turtles, crocodilians, and snakes.

Due to their ectothermic physiology and seasonal inactivity, reptiles have relatively slow growth rates, advanced ages at maturity, and advanced generation times. Lizards have the youngest ages at maturity (1.5 years), while turtles and crocodilians have the oldest age at maturity (20-50 years). Age at maturity is estimated at over 30 years for some marine turtles.

Rates of reproduction are variable. Clutch frequency in sea turtles varies from one to four clutches every 3-4 years, whereas annual multiple clutches are common for some freshwater turtles. Reproduction occurs in alternate years (or less often) for terrestrial tortoises. Most lizards produce at least one clutch each year, and multiple clutches per year are common. In contrast, biennial reproduction is typical in snakes.

4.3.1 Turtles

Six turtle families are found in the South. These include the sea turtles, snapping turtles, water and box turtles, mud and musk turtles, tortoises, and soft-shell turtles. The greatest diversity occurs in the Coastal Plain, which supports a variety of freshwater and coastal marsh species, and several species of sea turtles.

The gopher tortoise is a keystone species in the communities where it occurs. Its burrows provide refuges for a variety of species, including indigo snakes and diamondback rattlesnakes. The tortoise is threatened throughout its range as a result of habitat destruction associated with land development (Echternacht and Harris 1993).

Turtles are scavengers, herbivores, and carnivores, and often contribute significant biomass to various ecosystems. They provide dispersal mechanisms for plants, contribute to environmental diversity, and foster symbiotic associations with a diverse array of organisms

Many species have experienced significant declines in abundance and distribution during the last century. Among such species are the bog turtle, spotted turtle, common box turtle, gopher tortoise, common slider, and alligator snapping turtle. Some species, such as map turtles, have limited ranges, placing them at risk from habitat alteration or illegal collection for the pet trade. Disease also appears to contribute to population declines in some turtles. The diamondback terrapin was exploited heavily for food during the 19th century. Although the species recovered, the terrapin is again imperiled due to regional harvesting, habitat destruction, vehicular mortality, and drowning in crab traps (Lovich 1995).

Although the habitat requirements of marine turtles are beyond the scope of this terrestrial assessment, concerns over the future of these species warrants mention. Five species of marine turtles frequent the beaches, bays, estuaries, and lagoons of the South: loggerhead, green, Kemp's Ridley, leatherback, and hawksbill turtles. These species have had dramatic declines attributable to commercial turtle fishing, exploitation of the juvenile populations, beach development, polluted water, incidental take, and diseases such as fibropapillomas. Monitoring is difficult due to their longevity. They continue to be threatened and their conservation involves international efforts.

Forest conditions influence both aquatic and terrestrial turtles. Map turtles, cooter turtles, and musk turtles inhabit streams and rivers that are influenced by adjacent riparian forests. Forest cover reduces sedimentation rates, affects water temperature, and influences availability of basking sites (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). In addition, many species such as mud turtles use terrestrial habitat for nesting and winter dormancy, spending the summer in wetland areas. Riparian forests are also quite important for map turtles.

Turtles inhabit areas with a variety of physiographic features (Table 9). Not surprisingly, rivers, streams, swamps, lakes, and marshes figure prominently in their occurrence. Ninety percent of the species depend on aquatic environments. Common and alligator snapping turtles are found in swamps, deep rivers, and canals while marshes support bog and painted turtles. River and stream habitats support several species of map turtles.

Turtles are also associated with sandy soils, logs, and rocks that serve as shelter and as basking surfaces. The ornate box turtle and gopher tortoise require sandy or friable soils in which to burrow or deposit eggs (Wilson 1995). A majority of species (71 percent) prefers open-canopy conditions that aid in thermoregulation. Such species include the painted turtle, spotted turtle, Alabama map turtle, and striped mud turtle.

Tables 10 and 11 list the vegetative cover types and successional stages that are associated with turtles in the South. Bottomland hardwood forests support 81 percent of species, including the wood turtle, the common map turtle, and the Pascagoula map turtle. Sixty-three percent of the turtles occupy cypress-tupelo forests. These species include the Barbour's, the Escambia, and the yellow-blotched map turtle. Mesic, mixed pine/hardwoods stands are used by slightly over half of the southern species, including the painted and spotted turtles. Approximately one-third of the species find optimum or suitable habitat in grass/forb cover; most of these species presumably are associated with aquatic conditions.

4.3.2 Lizards and Snakes

Four families of lizards inhabit the South. These species include anole, fence, collared, and horned lizards; whiptails; skinks; and glass lizards. All lizards are terrestrial; most species have small home ranges.

Sandhills and flatwoods are important habitats for lizards (Table 9). The Florida scrub lizard, the island glass lizard, and the coal skink inhabit these areas. Leaf litter, fallen logs, and snags provide shelter as well as places to hunt for prey. The fence lizard and five-lined skink are associated with snags, while the slender glass lizard and the broadhead skink use fallen logs. Friable soils are an important habitat component for 60 percent of the species. Mimic and eastern glass lizards deposit eggs and burrow in these soils. The majority of species (70 percent) require an open forest canopy, a forest opening, or a rocky outcrop as basking sites for thermoregulation. Such species include the slender and island glass lizards, the collared lizard, and the Great Plains skink.

Twenty-one forest cover types are associated with lizards in the South (Table 10). Although lizards in the region use a variety of forest cover, over half of the species inhabit longleaf pine/scrub oak, xeric mixed pine/hardwood, and live oak stands. Longleaf pine and scrub oak forests support the fence lizard, island glass lizard, and mimic glass lizard. The sand skink, ground skink, and six-lined racerunner occur in mixed pine and hardwoods. Live oak forests are used by 55 percent of the southern lizards, including the mole skink and broadhead skink. Mesic, mixed pine/hardwood stands also support a variety of lizards. Approximately half of the species find optimum conditions among grasses and forbs (Table 11).

Three families of snakes occur in the South: nonvenomous snakes, coral snakes, and pit vipers. Species that inhabit the water are especially prevalent. Three of the largest snakes in North America occur in the region: the indigo snake, eastern diamondback rattlesnake, and timber rattlesnake.

In the absence of a large assemblage of mammalian predators, snakes assume special importance as top predators in some communities, and their low metabolic rates allow them to occur at impressive densities in undisturbed habitat (Echternacht and Harris 1993).

Since the larger species of snakes have fairly large home ranges -125-250 acres- fragmentation of existing habitat poses a significant threat (Wilson 1995). Several snakes, such as the brown snake and the common garter snake, have significant populations in suburban areas.

The majority of snake and lizard species have become imperiled due to insular populations, restricted ranges, habitat degradation, or the loss of suitable habitat. Malicious killing, biocides, exotic species, and illegal trade have also contributed to their decline.

Many snakes require shelter in the form of friable soil, fallen logs, leaf litter, rocks, or similar surface debris (Table 9). As with lizards, snakes require open-canopy forest conditions to aid thermoregulation. Habitat management that leaves surface debris and tree stumps can benefit their habitat. Leaf litter and fallen logs provide refuges for snakes as well as their prey, which include invertebrates, small mammals, and amphibians. Racer and ringneck snakes are found in leaf litter, while fallen logs are important habitat components for indigo and corn snakes. Seventy-five percent of snake species are associated with open canopy forest; these include scarlet and Kirtland's snakes.

Forests provide essential habitat components for terrestrial species as well as those that live in aquatic habitats. Table 10 presents the 26 vegetative cover types that are associated with snakes in the South. Snakes use a diversity of forest cover; there are, however, a group of specific types that are used most often. Mesic, mixed pine and hardwoods forests support 65 percent of species including the western worm snake, corn snake, and rat snake. Fifty-one percent of the snakes occupy bottomland hardwoods. These species include the mud, rainbow, and scarlet kingsnake. Mesic upland hardwoods and xeric oak-hickory hardwoods are used by over 40 percent of the southern species. The prairie kingsnake, milk snake, and the common water snake occupy mesic hardwood types, while eastern and southern hognose snakes are characteristic of xeric hardwoods. The pine flatwoods forests also support a variety of snakes.

Table 11 illustrates the relationships between snake occurrence and forest successional stage. Approximately half of the species find suitable habitat in seedling/sapling and poletimber conditions. Slightly more species find optimum and suitable condition in grass/forb stages than in sawtimber stands.

4.3.3 Crocodilians

Two native species of crocodilians, the America alligator (family Alligatoridae) and the American crocodile (family Crocodylidae), occur in the South. A large breeding population of the introduced spectacled caiman, native to the American tropics from southern Mexico to Argentina, occurs in Dade County, Florida (Echternacht and Harris 1993). This exotic species is discussed further in CHAPTER TERRA-3.

The alligator is a wide-ranging animal that occurs from coastal North Carolina south to Florida and westward to eastern Texas. It has recovered from previous declines and now has pest status in Louisiana and Florida. The alligator creates marsh pools that provide habitat for many other species. Its larger and more secretive relative, the American crocodile, is restricted in its North American range to extreme south Florida.

During the last century, wetland drainage for agriculture and development activities permanently reduced alligator populations in freshwater marshes. Recent environmental contamination has been associated with declines in alligator populations (Woodward 1995). Widespread pollution of wetlands by toxic petrochemicals and metals may continue to threaten population viability. Although the status of the Florida alligator population appears secure, continued habitat loss and toxic contamination may compromise its conservation.

The crocodile remains endangered, while the alligator is Federally listed as threatened due to "similarity of appearance". This designation reflects the special instance when a species so closely resembles a listed species that it is difficult in the wild to differentiate between the two species. The effect of this difficulty is an additional threat to the listed species.

The alligator is doing well in suitable habitat, while the crocodile is struggling to survive in its limited range in southern Florida (Wilson 1995). Management plans for both species protect aquatic and terrestrial habitat, particularly for nesting and basking. Management includes captive programs to manage the species for meat and hide production, as well as effective protection from poaching.

Not surprisingly, both species occur in areas limited in the number of physiographic features and vegetative cover types (Tables 9 through 11). Lakes, marshes, rivers, streams, permanent ponds, and swamps figure prominently in their occurrence. Aquatic vegetation is important to both species; rocks and logs in the water serve as useful basking areas. Alligators and crocodiles require open canopy forest conditions to aid thermoregulation. This need may explain their use of stands of grasses and forbs.

Six vegetative cover types are associated with these species in the South. Mangrove and spartina habitat supports both species. Tropical hardwoods, cypress tupelo, and bottomland hardwood forests are also occasionally used. Additional details on each species are presented in the species accounts at the end of the reptile section.

4.3.4 Habitat Management for Reptiles

The general problems faced by reptiles in southern forests center on the environmental impacts resulting from human activities. Difficulties in assessing problems and monitoring populations hinder management of these vertebrates.

The life history and ecology of reptiles differ markedly from those of other taxa. Many reptile species take longer to mature and have long lifespans. For example, the forest-inhabiting box turtle and snapping turtle take over 10 years to reach sexual maturity (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). Managing for sustainable populations of long-lived, late-maturing species requires different strategies than for short-lived, rapid turnover species (Congdon and others 1994, Ernst and others 1994).

The primary threats to reptiles in the South stem from habitat destruction and alteration, including changes in water quality. The drainage of wetlands and temporary ponds has reduced the population of striped newts (Dodd 1995a) and extirpated the flatwoods salamander from a portion of its range (White and others 1998). Destruction of wetlands has reduced spotted turtle populations, and other aquatic habitats do not meet the turtle's specialized needs.

Impoundments have affected several species of map turtles native to large southern rivers. The damming of streams to form reservoirs has contributed strongly to the eliminating several species (Mitchell 1994). In addition, the removal of dead trees and the dredging of river bottoms, which harbor mollusks that the turtles eat, have negatively affected these species.

The gopher tortoise and other reptiles have become threatened in part because of the loss of longleaf pine habitat (Guyer and Bailey 1993, Dodd 1995b). Many species of snakes and box turtles are also declining in numbers due to loss of suitable habitat. Accidental death vehicles and intentional killing are other factors contributing to snake decline. Several of these reptiles, such as short-tailed snakes and flattened musk turtles, have relatively small geographic ranges. Others, such as the pinewoods snake, coal skink, and Webster's salamander, have disjunct populations that make them quite vulnerable to habitat loss. Effects of habitat alteration can be far-reaching.

Management of sea turtles has emphasized the acquisition and protection of nesting habitat. Other concerns include ocean pollution, fishing and shrimping nets, beach development, and enforcement of international regulations. The identification of migration routes and other life history information also will benefit future management strategies.

Degradation of aquatic habitat is the primary management concern for freshwater turtles. Conservation actions are directed at monitoring the extent of thermal pollution, dredging, channelization, and incidental takes by commercial fishing. Protection of nesting beaches and adjacent nest areas, and the prevention of deliberate killing are also important management priorities.

In addition to intentional killing, which affects snakes as well as turtles, several reptiles suffer direct losses due to exploitation. Unregulated harvest affects a number of the listed turtle and tortoise populations, as well as the majority of sea turtles. Collection for the pet trade is another serious management problem. Some species, particularly the genera Clemmys and Graptemys, require strict regulation due to rising demands in domestic and foreign pet markets. Commercial collectors also threaten the spotted turtle and box turtle.

The invasion of introduced exotics can also be detrimental to native reptiles. Fire ants, in particular, have been implicated in the reduction of terrestrial egg-laying reptiles (Mount 1986).

Management can enhance reptile habitat in many ways. One way is through the retention of microhabitat features that provide refuges. For example, the disruption of underground root systems in managed pine plantations may displace species such as the eastern diamondback rattlesnake. The importance of leaving terrestrial buffer zones around forest wetlands is well-documented (Burke and Gibbons 1995, Semlitsch and Bodie 1998). The retention of habitat elements such as leaf litter, snags, coarse woody debris, and fallen logs benefits the habitat of many reptiles (refer to the individual subtaxa sections above and the species accounts that follow).

Delayed sexual maturity and individual longevity contribute to the vulnerability of reptiles and inhibit the recovery of several threatened species. Several reptiles have existed virtually unchanged for centuries. Unfortunately, some of the same traits that allowed them to survive the ages predispose them to endangerment. Conservation actions should be directed towards areas of high species diversity, species with limited distributions, and locations such as shallow wetlands and coastal zones where reptiles are at risk. Insufficient knowledge of the distribution and ecology of native reptiles is a major shortcoming in any regional effort to detect change and avoid loss in these taxa.

4.3.5 Species Accounts

The following are the species accounts for selected reptiles that are of concern in the South. Several are Federally listed as threatened or endangered. Others are classified as imperiled or vulnerable by Natural Heritage Agencies. Management recommendations follow Wilson (1995) unless otherwise cited.

Alabama redbelly turtle. This endangered species is restricted to Mobile Bay in southern Alabama. It has declined due to habitat modification and because it was trapped and netted for food (Dobie and Bagley 1988). Habitat disturbance has altered the turtle's nesting and feeding habitat.

Primary habitat areas are the upper, freshwater portions of Mobile Bay, where there are abundant supplies of submerged plants and algae, which are preferred foods.

Conservation actions emphasize protection of the primary nesting site on Gravine Island, restriction of herbicide use, and limitation of dredging activity on the lower Tensaw River.

Alligator snapping turtle. This species is classified as vulnerable the by Natural Heritage and is listed in the States of Alabama, Georgia and Texas (NatureServe 2000). The turtle has declined due to habitat loss and commercial exploitation for food and the pet trade.

The species is typically found in deep rivers and canals, but may also occur in lakes, swamps, and small streams. Although it nests on land, the turtle is primarily aquatic and feeds on fish, mollusks, and crayfish.

Conservation measures include regulation of collection and the protection of suitable habitat with adequate prey populations (Wilson 1995).

American alligator. This species is Federally listed as threatened due to similarity of appearance to the American crocodile. The alligator ranges from coastal North Carolina, to extreme southern Florida, west to east Texas, and north to central Arkansas. Current threats include the conversion of habitat for recreational use and urban development.

Alligators prefer large, shallow lakes, fresh or brackish marshes, and savannas that border aquatic habitat. Alligators are strictly carnivorous, and will eat any animal they can subdue and swallow.

Conservation actions for the American alligator focus on habitat protection and control of human disturbance.

American crocodile. The crocodile is Federally listed as endangered. The species occurs in south Florida and the Florida Keys. It inhabits the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. Habitat loss is the primary reason for this species imperilment in the South (Moler 1992b).

The crocodile is found in brackish or salt water in coastal canals, mangrove thickets, or tidal creeks. The crocodile is carnivorous. Conservation actions center on protection of the remaining habitat in southern Florida (Wilson 1995).

Atlantic salt marsh snake. This threatened species is restricted to a small coastal strip in Florida. It is imperiled by wetland habitat alteration stemming from drainage and impoundment.

This snake preys on fish and is typically found in salt marshes, tidal creeks and mangrove swamps. Conservation action for this species is concerned with protection of the remaining, unaltered habitat (Conant and Collins 1991).

Bog turtle. This threatened species occurs in southwestern Virginia, eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and the Carolinas. The bog turtle is in jeopardy due to collection for the pet trade and habitat loss. The drainage of grassy and marshy wetlands has resulted in the destruction of the required habitat for this species.

The bog turtle feeds on a variety of animals including tadpoles, frogs, various invertebrates, and baby rodents. The species does not tolerate closed canopy forests. Management actions focus on the maintenance of early seral (grassy) habitat and halting the illegal pet trade (Ernst and others 1994). Drainage of wetlands is detrimental to this species (Wilson 1995).

Florida scrub lizard. This species is classified as vulnerable by Natural Heritage (NatureServe 2000). Disjunct populations occur along the east coast of Florida, in central Florida, and in isolated areas on the west coast of Florida. The species is threatened by conversion of habitat to other uses.

The lizard prefers open sandy edges in xeric sand pine scrub and longleaf pine habitat (Conant and Collins 1991). It feeds on ants, beetles, spiders and other small arthropods.

Conservation strategies focus on the management of sand pine scrub and longleaf pine turkey oak habitats to retain the open character that the lizard requires. The Ocala National Forest manages large areas of this habitat (Wilson 1995). Habitat maintenance often requires prescribed burning.

Gopher tortoise. This threatened species occurs in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. Habitat loss and the pet trade are the primary factors contributing to the decline of the tortoise (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990a).

Well-drained, sandy soils supporting pine and scrub oaks in the sandhills are preferred habitat. The tortoise feeds on grasses, forbs, and other vegetation (Ernst and others 1994).

Habitat management for the gopher tortoise includes selective harvest and prescribed burning to maintain the open, grassy nature of sand ridges. Ground disturbance such as heavy site preparation, and root-raking can be detrimental to young tortoises (Wilson 1995).

Indigo snake. The population of this threatened species has declined rapidly in recent years. Primary threats appear to be habitat loss and exploitation for the pet trade (Speake and others 1982). The indigo snake is currently found in southeastern Georgia and Florida.

The species coexists with gopher tortoises throughout much of its range, and frequently uses tortoise burrows. Preferred habitat is pine-scrub oak woodlands and palmetto-covered hills with well-drained, sandy soils. Indigo snakes may also be found in mesic habitats bordering swamps, streams, or canals. The snake feeds on frogs, toads, birds, small mammals, and other reptiles.

Conservation actions necessary to protect indigo snake populations include the retention of existing habitat, maintenance of pine-scrub oak woodlands in a sub-climax condition, and protection of gopher tortoise burrows (Moler 1992c).

Louisiana pine snake. This species is endemic to eastern Texas and western Louisiana, primarily in areas currently, or once, dominated by longleaf pine. The species is associated with fire-maintained pine forests on well-drained, sandy soils with well-developed herbaceous vegetation (Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997). Pocket gophers are the primary prey of Louisiana pine snakes, and pocket gopher burrows are used for escape from predators, avoidance of high temperatures, and hibernation. The species has apparently declined in recent decades and existing populations are thought to be small and isolated (Reichling 1995, Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997).

Loss of habitat due to conversion to intensive silviculture, and changes in the fire regime are the primary causes of population decline. Fire suppression and inadequate prescribed fire have resulted in widespread successional changes in pine forests throughout the range of Louisiana pine snakes, leading to loss of herbaceous vegetation and pocket gophers. Habitat loss and degradation has been more extensive on private than on public land. Roads and associated vehicle traffic are very likely impacting populations in much of the remaining habitat.

Conservation action centers on the management of fire-maintained pine habitat on a scale sufficient to support viable populations of this species. Prescribed burning sufficient to maintain abundant herbaceous vegetation and support of pocket gopher populations are required.

Mimic glass lizard. This species is classified as vulnerable by Natural Heritage (NatureServe 2000). The lizard occurs on the Atlantic Coastal Plain from North Carolina to Florida and westward as far as the Pearl River in Mississippi. The species is imperiled due to excessive development and habitat modification in its range.

The lizard inhabits open-canopied pine forests with thick forest litter. It feeds on a variety of invertebrate prey as well as small lizards and snakes (Palmer and Braswell 1995).

Conservation actions to benefit this species include maintaining an open canopy through burning and thinning (Wilson 1995).

Bluetail mole skink. This threatened subspecies occurs in Florida. Residential development and agricultural conversion have altered its habitat.
The mole skink prefers open, sandy edges in sand pine scrub and sandhill habitats. The species consumes a variety of invertebrate prey, including ants, beetles and spiders.

Conservation actions for this species focus on protection of essential habitat areas from conversion to other uses (Conant and Collins 1991).

Rim rock crowned snake. This species is classified as critically imperiled by Natural Heritage and occurs solely in Florida (NatureServe 2000). Development and the resultant habitat loss threaten the snake.

This snake is found in flatwoods, tropical hardwood hammocks, and pastures, and on fossil coral reefs (Porras and Wilson 1979). This snake consumes insects and other small arthropods.

Because of the intense development occurring in the habitat of this species, conservation action centers on the protection of suitable habitat (Wilson 1995).

Ringed map turtle. This threatened turtle inhabits the Pearl River drainage of southern Mississippi and southeastern Louisiana. Primary threats are illegal collection for the pet trade and habitat degradation (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1988).

This turtle leaves the river to bask and to lay eggs. Preferred habitat includes river stretches with moderate current, sandbars, and debris for basking sites. The diet is comprised of insects and mollusks. Because this turtle is restricted to the Pearl River, modifications of natural conditions there could prove detrimental.

Sand skink. This species is classified as imperiled by Natural Heritage (NatureServe 2000). It is restricted to well-drained, sandy soils in the interior central Florida highlands. Much of this habitat has been converted to citrus groves and residential areas.

The sand skink lives in loose, dry sandy areas with sparse grass cover. It subsists on a diet of ants, spiders, termites, beetle larvae, and other invertebrates.

Protection of the remaining habitat and acquisition of additional areas are the primary conservation actions required to preserve this species (Christman 1992). In addition, the use of prescribed fire is important for maintaining the open nature of sand skink habitat.

Short-tailed snake. This species is classified as vulnerable by Natural Heritage and is endemic to Florida (NatureServe 2000). Habitat destruction is the primary threat, particularly in central Florida, where land is in demand for agricultural, residential, and other uses (Wilson 1995).

The primary habitats of this snake are longleaf pine-turkey oak and sand pine scrub communities with loose sandy soils. It feeds on small snakes and lizards.

Management actions center on the protection of remaining occupied habitat from development and the retention of prey populations (Campbell and Moler 1992).

Southern hognose snake. This species is classified as imperiled by Natural Heritage (NatureServe 2000). The snake occurs primarily on the Coastal Plain from North Carolina westward into southern Mississippi. There is one disjunct population in central Alabama. Development of preferred habitat is the primary cause for imperilment, but fire ants may also be impacting populations (Wilson 1995).

This snake is found in sandhills, pine-scrub oak woodlands, pine and wiregrass flatwoods, and other open xeric communities with loose, sandy soils (Martof and others 1980). It feeds primarily on toads, frogs, and lizards.

Conservation actions for this species include the protection and restoration of remaining habitat, restriction of additional development, and fire ant control.