4.1 Birds

The moderate climate and diverse forests across the South support abundant and diverse communities of breeding, wintering, and migrating birds. This vertebrate group comprises 17 major orders and 55 families (Echternacht and Harris 1993). The order Passeriformes dominates the region's avifauna in the number of different families (19) and species (127). These include the flycatchers, crows, swallows, jays, titmice, wrens, vireos, grackles, orioles, finches, sparrows, and warblers among others.

The South supports 595 avian species (NatureServe 2000). The number of bird species ranges from 505 in Texas to 296 in Tennessee. Florida has 419; North Carolina, 390; Oklahoma, 359; and Alabama, 355. These totals include perching birds, shorebirds, wading birds, waterfowl, raptors, and other birds (Figure 2).

Perching birds, which include the passerines mentioned above, comprise the majority of bird species. Examples of shorebirds include plovers and curlews, while wading birds include sandhill cranes and flamingos. Mottled ducks, Canada geese, wood ducks, hooded merganser, and mallards represent waterfowl. Eagles, hawks, kites, vultures, and owls are some of the species classified as raptors. The Natural Heritage designation of "other birds" includes gamebirds, such as bobwhite quail, ruffed grouse, American woodcock, wild turkey, and several dove species. This group also includes woodpeckers; open ocean birds such as cormorants, petrels, and pelicans; rails; and many other species.

The coastal wetlands support the greatest number of species. In fact, the South supports the largest number of wading species in the United States (White and others 1998). Thirty-one species occur solely at high elevations in the Appalachian Mountains.

The South also provides habitat for summer breeding populations, birds that overwinter in the region, and birds that migrate to South America. Coastal habitats, maritime forests, and longleaf pine savannah are all important to migrating species.

Twenty-one species of birds are listed as threatened or endangered (Table 1). Several of these species inhabit the Coastal Plain. In addition, several birds are classified as imperiled or vulnerable by the Natural Heritage Agencies (CHAPTER TERRA-1). These species are in jeopardy due to habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, or coastal development (Hall 1995). The dependence on breeding and staging areas has made shorebird populations vulnerable to disturbance. Colonial waterbirds have declined as a result of habitat degradation.

In contrast, the status of other species has improved during the past decade. The status of the brown pelican as well as several species of raptors (ospreys, bald eagles, and peregrine falcons) has improved due to habitat protection and restrictions on the use of DDT (Fuller and others 1995).

There is a substantial body of information on bird-habitat relationships, and extensive, long-term monitoring programs have been in place for several decades. The distribution and composition of bird communities is influenced by local habitat and landscape conditions. Local habitat features include forest type, understory, number of foliage layers, canopy structure, and successional stage. Landscape conditions influencing bird populations include patch size, interspersion of vegetative communities, forest fragmentation, edge length, interpatch distance, interior forest, adjacent land use, and spatial heterogeneity.

The following section discusses bird-habitat associations in the South. Species of concern are identified and recommendations for their management are provided.

4.11 Partners in Flight Physiographic Areas

Partners in Flight (PIF) is an organization formed to promote bird conservation It is comprised of Federal and State agencies, conservation groups, and forest industry. PIF uses physiographic areas as conservation planning units for evaluating population trends, habitat conditions, land-use practices, and emerging conservation issues (Figure 3). Boundaries defined by geomorphology, topography, and vegetative communities are based upon physiographic strata established by the North American Breeding Bird Survey (Peterjohn and others 1995). Physiographic areas are distinguished by having distinct species assemblages, land uses, and conservation issues.

Bird conservation plans prepared for each physiographic area identify species and habitats of conservation concern. Seventeen physiographic areas lie predominately in the South (Table 2). All of the plans are available online at www.blm.gov/wildlife/pifplans.htm.

The conservation plans prioritize birds of concern and their habitat using several criteria for ranking a species' vulnerability: relative abundance, size of breeding and nonbreeding ranges, threats during breeding and non-breeding seasons, population trends, and relative density. Numerical scores are given for each criterion, with higher scores reflecting higher vulnerability. Species of concern are represented by scores of 22 and above; these species are the focus of the physiographic area conservation plans.

Table 3 presents a summary of the birds of concern for the southern physiographic areas. Species of concern that occur in several physiographic areas include the swallow-tailed kite, red-cockaded woodpecker, acadian flycatcher, Bell's vireo, brown-headed nuthatch, wood thrush, prairie warbler, cerulean warbler, prothonotary warbler, worm-eating warbler, Swainson's warbler, Louisiana waterthrush, Kentucky warbler, Bachman's sparrow, and Henslow's sparrow. These species and the physiographic areas they inhabit are described below. Management recommendations from the plans follow Pashley and others (2000) unless otherwise cited.

Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain. This physiographic area extends from the Atlantic Ocean south of Long Island to the Virginia-North Carolina border. The landscape is dominated by forested wetlands, salt marshes, and barrier islands. Upland forests grade from pine-dominated areas on the outer Coastal Plain to hardwood forests on the inland areas. This landscape has been altered by human settlement for approximately four centuries. Human population growth is expected to continue, placing further demands on the region's natural resources.

The Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain supports 185 bird species; 20 (11 percent) are of concern. Among those species, the prairie warbler occupies pine savannah habitat, while the Bachman's sparrow occurs in grassy understories. Salt marshes support important breeding and wintering populations of the black duck, black rail, salt marsh sharp-tailed sparrow, and seaside sparrow. The Acadian Flycatcher, cerulean warbler, and prothonotary warbler inhabit forested wetlands. Mixed upland forest supports the wood thrush in well-developed midstories and the worm-eating warbler and Kentucky warbler in dense understories. Henslow's sparrows may also occur along the edges of salt marsh habitat, in areas of regenerating pines, and on former grasslands.

Conservation issues center on managing human population growth while maintaining functioning ecosystems. The extensive forested habitat is heavily fragmented; maintaining blocks large enough to support a diversity of breeding birds is a priority. Protection of critical sites for wintering species must be integrated with conservation plans for breeding habitats. Specific recommendations include restoration of pine-savannah conditions through prescribed burning; protection of barrier dunes to minimize losses in species productivity; protection of sites with > 125 ac of high marsh; identification of forest areas that support significant populations of prothonotary and cerulean warblers; and the restoration of open lands > 125 ac with Henslow's sparrow potential.

Mid-Atlantic Piedmont. The Mid-Atlantic Piedmont is separated from the Southern Piedmont at the North Carolina-Virginia line. It extends north through Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania before terminating in northern New Jersey. The rolling topography formerly supported extensive hardwood forests including oak-hickory, Appalachian oak, and loblolly-shortleaf pine. Approximately 45 percent of the physiographic area is presently forested, 45 percent is in agricultural production, and the remainder is in urban areas.

The Mid-Atlantic Piedmont supports 137 bird species; 11 (8 percent) are of concern. Deciduous and mixed forest habitats support the wood thrush, cerulean warbler, Louisiana waterthrush (in riparian forest buffers), and Kentucky warbler (in dense understory). The shrub-scrub areas and barrens support the bobwhite quail (in decline). The America woodcock (also in decline) requires an interspersion of forest clearings and second-growth hardwoods. Agricultural pastureland supports a large population of grasshopper sparrows and other grassland species.

Conservation issues center on the management of human population growth and protection of conservation areas. Enhancement of grassland habitat also is a priority. Specific recommendations include management of areas that support significant populations of cerulean and Kentucky warblers, restoration of natural barrens that support shrub-nesting species, and monitoring priority species in disturbed areas.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley. This physiographic area extends from western Maryland through the mountains of Virginia. Consisting of mountain ridges and intervening valleys, the predominant forest type is oak-hickory. Relict patches of spruce-fir occur on high mountain ridges. Agricultural production and urban development dominate in the lower valleys. Human populations are relatively sparse and confined to the valleys, while coal extraction occurs on public and private forests. Disease and insect pests are important disturbance factors; the pesticides used for gypsy moth control impact other foliage insects that are important bird food (Hunter and others 2001).

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley supports 166 bird species; 14 (8 percent) are of concern. Early successional shrub habitat (including barrens and disturbed sites) supports the whip-poor-will, golden-winged warbler, and prairie warbler. The wood thrush and worm-eating warbler occupy mature deciduous forest, while the Louisiana waterthrush is found in late successional stands near streams. The black-throated blue warbler and the blackburnian warbler use northern hardwood and spruce-fir forests.

Conservation issues center on long-term planning on public land to meet the habitat needs of species requiring specific seral stages. On public land, it is important to balance the needs of early successional species with those requiring mature forest (Trani and others 2001). Specific actions needed for this physiographic area include management of high-elevation spruce-fir habitat, intensive surveys for Appalachian Bewick's wren, identification of breeding sites for golden-winged warbler, and the maintenance of composition and structural diversity.

Northern Cumberland Plateau. The Plateau is a predominantly forested, gently rolling tableland bordered by the eastern rim of the Interior Low Plateaus and the Cumberland Mountains (Figure 3). The area includes eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, southwestern West Virginia, and a small area in western Virginia. Forests dominated by oaks and hickories are common. Various pine species are dominant on drier sites.

The Northern Cumberland Plateau supports 144 bird species; 18 (12 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, the Acadian flycatcher, wood thrush, worm-eating warbler, and Swainson's warbler inhabit mixed mesophytic forests. Coniferous forests support the red-cockaded woodpecker (low-elevation yellow pine) and Bachman's sparrow. Bewick's wren and golden-winged warbler use early successional habitat, while Henslow's sparrow occurs in grassland areas. Both habitats exist only due to disturbance.

Conservation issues center on the maintenance of species composition and vegetation structure. Widespread timber harvesting and fire suppression have reduced both old-growth and young forest habitats. The current structure of the mid-seral forest may not be optimal for many midstory and understory breeding birds. As a result of diminishing habitat quality, several high-priority birds have undergone significant population declines. The Northern Cumberland Plateau is one of the most heavily forested physiographic areas in the South. Specific recommendations include management of 12-15 percent of forests for long-rotation sawtimber or old growth, increased use of fire in low-elevation yellow pine habitat, and maintenance of shrub-scrub conditions.

Southern Ridge and Valley. This physiographic area includes the southern end of the Ridge and Valley and the tablelands of the Southern Cumberland Plateau. It is in eastern Tennessee, northwest Georgia, and northeast Alabama. The upland forest is predominantly in oak-hickory and pine (shortleaf or loblolly) types.

The Southern Ridge and Valley supports 131 bird species; 21 (16 percent) are of concern. Early successional, scrub-shrub habitat is occupied by the Bewick's wren, blue-winged warbler, and orchard oriole. The hardwood forest component supports the Acadian flycatcher, yellow-throated warbler, prothonotary warbler, worm-eating warbler, and Swainson's warbler among others. Red-cockaded woodpeckers and brown-headed nuthatches are found in southern pines

Conservation issues focus on the conversion of hardwood forest to monocultures of loblolly pine. A large percentage of natural vegetation has been cleared for agriculture and urban development. Birds dependent on mature forest may be at risk because the amount of public land may not be sufficient to support viable populations of sensitive species (Hunter and others 2001). Enhancement of habitat for these species will require the use of long-rotation harvests. Specific recommendations include expansion of longleaf habitat using prescribed fire, and the enhancement of scrub habitat.

Southern Blue Ridge. The Southern Blue Ridge runs along the border between Tennessee and North Carolina, extending into South Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia. The area is comprised of rugged mountains, broad ridges, steep slopes, and deep ravines. Spruce-fir forests at the highest elevation transition into northern hardwoods, hemlock-white pine, and Appalachian oaks at lower elevations. Cove forests occur on mesic sites, while fire-associated yellow pines occur on dry ridges. Disturbances from fire, grazing, and storms are primary factors in determining forest composition and structure.

The Southern Blue Ridge supports 156 bird species; 20 (13 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, the northern saw-whet owl, black-capped chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, golden-crowned kinglet, red crossbill, and yellow-bellied sapsucker are distinct subspecies whose ranges are centered within the Southern Blue Ridge. With the exception of the sapsucker, each species occupies high forested peaks. The yellow-bellied sapsucker, as well as the golden-winged warbler, inhabits disturbed forest areas. Among species of concern requiring mature forest in the Southern Blue Ridge are Acadian flycatchers, yellow-throated vireos, wood thrushes, blackburnian warblers, Swainson's warblers, Kentucky warblers, and Canada warblers.

Conservation issues include population declines of both migrant and resident birds. The rapid construction of new homes and associated developments along roads contributes to habitat loss and fragmentation. Another concern is the decline of high-elevation spruce-fir forests resulting from exotic pests and reduced air quality. Atmospheric pollution is reducing tree growth, insectivore food availability, and supplies of important minerals necessary for successful bird reproduction (Hunter and others 2001). Many species in this habitat are in isolated, endemic populations that may be genetically distinct from populations elsewhere. Populations of priority birds, such as the Appalachian subspecies of Bewick's wren, have declined in recent years. Maintenance of early successional habitat is a conservation need. Other recommendations include management of riparian zones and the provision of old-growth forest.

Southern Piedmont. This physiographic area extends through central North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia into eastern Alabama. Plains, hills, tablelands, and numerous rivers characterize the Piedmont. The area lies between the Appalachian Mountains and the Coastal Plain. The dominant vegetation includes oak-hickory and mixed hardwood forests. Shortleaf, loblolly, and scattered longleaf pines are prevalent on disturbed sites.

The Southern Piedmont supports 125 bird species; 14 (11 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, the prairie warbler, Bachman's sparrow, and Henslow's sparrow are supported by grassland and shrub habitat. Southern pine forests support the red-cockaded woodpecker and brown-headed nuthatch, while prothonotary and Swainson's warblers use the bottomland hardwoods. Upland hardwood habitat supports the whip-poor-will, wood thrush, and cerulean warbler.

Conservation challenges focus on human population growth, urban sprawl, and the intensification of agriculture and timber harvesting. Several bird populations have declined in patches of protected mature forests embedded in suburban settings. In addition, changing land use has resulted in a loss of early successional habitat. Public lands provide core areas in the Piedmont on which to manage habitat. The maintenance of bird communities requires coordination among public agencies, forest industry, and private landowners.

South Atlantic Coastal Plain. The South Atlantic Coastal Plain covers northeastern Florida, southern Georgia, the eastern Carolinas, and the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia. Coastal areas contain barrier islands, maritime forests, marshland, and estuaries. Inland areas support bottomland hardwood forests, pocosins, and Carolina bays. Fire-maintained forests of longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly pine once dominated upland areas.

The South Atlantic Coastal Plain supports 161 bird species; 26 (15 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, the American kestrel, red-cockaded woodpecker, and brown-headed nuthatch require pine forest, and Henslow's sparrow requires pocosin grasslands. The swallow-tailed kite, northern parula, Swainson's warbler, and hooded warbler occupy bottomland and upland hardwood forests. The prairie warbler and painted bunting are found in the scrub-shrub habitat.

Conservation concerns include fire management, land conversion, and short-rotation pine plantations. Restoration of fire-maintained pine savannah benefits pine-grassland species, particularly the red-cockaded woodpecker. Pine plantations are used by other species, but the maintenance of age class diversity is important. Other recommendations include maintenance of large tracts of bottomland forest in river systems to benefit black-throated green warblers and breeding swallow-tailed kites, and retention of coastal maritime forest and scrub-shrub habitats for the bunting and in-transit migrants.

Peninsular Florida. This physiographic area extends from the northern edge of Lake Okeechobee in central Florida to the Suwanee River in northern Florida. Habitat includes sandhill, scrub, and xeric hammock communities. Longleaf pine, turkey oak, and wiregrass characterize the fire-dependent sandhill communities. Dominant scrub vegetation includes sand pine and scrub oak. Xeric hammocks support live oak, laurel oak, and saw palmetto. Upland hardwoods, wetlands, and mangroves are also locally common to abundant in the physiographic area.

Peninsular Florida supports 128 bird species; 21 (15 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, crested caracara (threatened), burrowing owl, Florida scrub jays (endangered), and grasshopper sparrows inhabit the scrub and grassland habitat. Wetland and mangrove habitats support the swallow-tailed kite, snail kite (endangered), and short-tailed hawk. The painted bunting occurs in maritime scrub, while the American kestrel, red-cockaded woodpecker, and Bachman's sparrow use pine forests.

Conservation actions are directed at fostering cooperative relations with private landowners, and encouraging proper habitat management through education, tax breaks, and conservation easements. Conservation goals also include the public acquisition of acreage in sandhills, oak scrub, upland forest, and floodplain swamp communities.

Subtropical Florida. This physiographic area extends south from Lake Okeechobee in central Florida to the Florida Keys. The tropical ecosystem contains the Everglades and the Big Cypress Reserve. Fire is an important feature in the pine, marsh, and prairie communities. Hurricane disturbance creates early successional habitat. Distinct dry and wet seasons influence the nesting cycles of many birds.

Subtropical Florida supports 103 bird species; 14 (13 percent) are of concern. Pine rocklands, flatwoods, and sand scrub habitats are used by the Florida scrub jay, sedge wren, and palm warbler. Grassland and dry prairie communities support the sandhill crane and grasshopper sparrow. The short-tailed hawk, white-crowned pigeon, and gray kingbird inhabit subtropical deciduous forests. The reddish egret, white ibis, wood stork, seaside sparrow, and several species of rails use the brackish saltwater and freshwater marsh habitats of the Everglades. Mangrove swamps support the mangrove cuckoo, the black-whiskered vireo, and the Cuban subspecies of the yellow warbler.

Conservation concerns are directed towards the rapidly growing human population in the region. Habitats have been lost by converting land to urban and agricultural uses, such as sugarcane and citrus production. Other problems include pollution, and alteration of the hydroperiod and natural water cycles. Recommendations include aggressive acquisition programs, and the maintenance of pine-dominated stands and prairies through prescribed burning. Programs for bird conservation were created by the Surface Water Improvement and Management Act, Florida's Everglades Forever Act, and South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.

Interior Low Plateaus. The Plateaus extend from Alabama northward across central Tennessee and Kentucky into southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Encompassing the central basin and Tennessee Valley. Oak-hickory and beech-maple forests were historically the most abundant cover types. There were also tallgrass prairies and oak savannas in the northern section. Barrens and glades are rare in the central regions, and forested wetlands occur along major waterways.

The Interior Low Plateaus supports 159 bird species; 15 (9 percent) are of concern. Priority species inhabiting hardwood forest include the whip-poor-will, cerulean warbler, and Louisiana waterthrush. The grassland, savanna, and old-field habitats support the Bewick's wren, blue-winged warbler, and dickcissel.

Conservation issues center on habitat loss from land conversion, habitat deterioration, and fragmentation. Pastureland has replaced grassland and savanna, while glades and barrens have become urban areas. Fire suppression has allowed woody vegetation to encroach into open areas. Floodplain forests have been converted to reservoirs or row crops. Previous forest management and chipping of all woody vegetation have influenced canopy characteristics, understory development, and age structure of upland forests.

Specific recommendations include the re-establishment of greater prairie chicken and swallow-tailed kite populations, maintenance of existing forested acreage, and the restoration of forested wetlands, warm season grasses, and oak savannas.

Ozarks and Ouachitas. The Ozark Mountains extend from southern Missouri into northern Arkansas, and consist of dissected plateaus covered by oak forest with glade and savannah inclusions. The ridge and valley system of the Ouachitas covers central Arkansas, reaching into eastern Oklahoma. Vegetation includes shortleaf pine and deciduous forests. The vegetation changes to prairie in the northern reaches.

The Ozarks and Ouachitas support 151 bird species; 17 (11 percent) are of concern. Deciduous and mixed forest habitat supports the whip-poor-will, worm-eating warbler, and Kentucky warbler. The red-cockaded woodpecker and Bachman's sparrow occur in pine savannah; populations of both species have declined dramatically due to fire exclusion and forestry practices. The Bewick's wren and the field sparrow use early successional habitat; both species are undergoing significant declines.

Conservation actions include the improvement of shortleaf pine, glade, and savanna communities through the use of thinning, overstory removal, and dormant-season burns. Other activities include the prevention of forest fragmentation stemming from urbanization, and the management of habitat required by early successional species.

East Gulf Coastal Plain. The East Gulf Coastal Plain extends from Louisiana and western Florida northwards through Mississippi and Alabama into Tennessee and Kentucky. Numerous streams and rivers break the rolling topography. Uplands are dominated by shortleaf pine and mixed hardwoods. Loblolly pine and bottomland hardwood forests occur in the lowland areas.

The East Gulf Coastal Plain supports 161 bird species; 20 (12 percent) are of concern. Swallow-tailed kites, prothonotary warblers, and Kentucky warblers occur in the forested wetlands and other habitat. The northern bobwhite, Mississippi sandhill crane (endangered), red-cockaded woodpecker, and sedge wren occupy the pine and savanna habitats. Chuck-will's-widow occurs in upland hardwoods, while the LeConte's sparrow and orchard oriole are present in the scrub habitat. Numerous spring migrants use the maritime forests. Emergent wetlands support the reddish egret, yellow and black rails, and Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow. Snowy, piping, and Wilson's plovers inhabit the beach dunes community.

Conservation issues include the conversion of longleaf pine and upland hardwoods to other species, hydrological alteration, land use changes including coastal development, and the changes in species composition and structure resulting from fire suppression. Specific recommendations include maintenance of large tracts of longleaf pine and upland hardwoods for red-cockaded woodpeckers, swallow-tailed kite, cerulean warbler, Swainson's warblers, and associated species. Other actions include the control of exotic plants and the restoration of maritime forest, emergent wetlands, and beach dunes that are important to priority breeding and wintering birds.

Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Encompassing the floodplain of the Mississippi River, the valley includes eastern Louisiana, eastern Arkansas, northwestern Mississippi, and portions of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri. The South's biggest concentration of bottomland hardwoods is in the Mississippi River Valley, where agricultural conversion has resulted in forest fragmentation. The Mississippi River and its flood regimes, which influence vegetation communities and bird habitat conditions, shape this physiographic area.

The Mississippi Alluvial Valley supports 143 bird species; 17 (12 percent) are of concern. Among species of concern, the swallow-tailed kite, northern parula, and painted bunting are supported by bottomland hardwood forests. Marsh, wetland, and open land support several species of shorebirds and waterfowl, and provide important wintering areas for mallards, wood ducks, and other birds.

Conservation recommendations target the restoration of bottomland hardwood forest to support healthy populations of a suite of birds. Since settlement, over 80 percent of the forest has been cleared for agriculture and other uses. The hydrology has been dramatically altered, inhibiting ecosystem functions. The resulting forest fragmentation has reduced the ability of the area to support many bird populations. The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture leads restoration efforts (Pashley and others 2000).

West Gulf Coastal Plain. The West Gulf Coastal Plain is located in northwestern Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, eastern Texas, and southern Oklahoma. The physiographic area is characterized by loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, and longleaf pine forests on the uplands, hardwood forests in the bottomlands, and grasslands in the southernmost areas.

The West Gulf Coastal Plain supports 130 bird species; 18 (14 percent) are of concern. Among such species, the American kestrel, chuck-will's-widow, scissor-tailed flycatcher, brown-headed nuthatch, Bewick's wren, prairie warbler, and Bachman's sparrow are supported by pine forests and associated grasslands. The swallow-tailed kite, white-eyed vireo, worm-eating warbler, Swainson's warbler, and hooded warbler occupy hardwood forests and other supported habitats. The bottomland forests and riparian habitats are important for stopover migrants.

Conservation issues include fire suppression and regeneration practices that have replaced native species with loblolly or slash pine. Although many bird species occur in young pine plantations, others such as the red-cockaded woodpecker require native pine savannah conditions or mature longleaf pine stands. Specific recommendations include the maintenance of mature longleaf pine stands with fire, prevention of additional forest conversion to agricultural uses, and deterrence of bottomland hardwood loss due to inundation by reservoirs. The importance of these hardwoods for area-sensitive species and spring migrants extends beyond the West Gulf Coastal Plain.

Oaks and Prairies. This physiographic area extends from the Red River of Oklahoma southward into Texas. Tallgrass prairie, post-oak savanna, bottomland hardwood forests, riparian forests, and upland hardwood forests associated with dense scrub layers characterize the area. Wetlands and freshwater marshes are associated with streams, rivers, and reservoirs.

The Oaks and Prairies support 147 bird species; 13 (9 percent) are of concern. Among such species, the greater prairie chicken, northern bobwhite, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Bell's vireo, and painted bunting are supported by grassland and scrub habitats.

Conservation issues focus on the loss of prairie habitat. Areas of tallgrass prairie have been converted to crop production; less than 10 percent of original prairie exists. The continued loss of tallgrass habitat inhibits restoration efforts by reducing genetic diversity; preservation of remaining habitat is critical. Encroachment by heavy woody growth and exotic species also causes loss of grassland habitat. Prescribed fire and grazing management through incentive programs are beneficial.

Coastal Prairies. This physiographic area is found along the Gulf Coast shoreline in Louisiana and Texas. The area supports a complex of marshes, upland grassland, and forested habitat. Marsh communities include salt, brackish, and freshwater marsh. The majority of grassland habitats have been converted to pasture and rice farms. Forested areas occur along major rivers, beachfront ridges, salt domes, and man-made levees. These woodlands are comprised of hackberry and live oak, while the bottomland hardwood forests contain the cypress-tupelo, hackberry-ash-elm, and oak-willow forest types.

The Coastal Prairies support 168 bird species; 20 (11 percent) are of concern. Priority grassland birds include the greater prairie chicken, short-eared owl, sedge wren, and Sprague's pipit. The bottomland hardwood forest supports the swallow-tailed kite, American woodcock, prothonotary warbler, and Swainson's warbler. Bell's vireo and painted bunting occupy scrub-shrub habitat. In addition, many passerine species use the coastal habitat during spring migration.

Conservation concerns focus on the alteration of natural communities in the Coastal Prairies. Oil and gas development, dredging, and impoundments have degraded marsh habitat. Grazing animals have degraded grassland and woodland areas. Specific recommendations include cooperative management with private landowners, incentive programs, and identification of potential habitat for priority birds. Other actions include marsh restoration, retention of forested wetlands, exotic species control (especially Chinese tallow), and monitoring the influence of rice crop conversion on waterbird species.

Additional information on the habitat associations of bird species in the South can be found in Hunter and others (2001) and Hamel (1992). The physiographic associations for nonbird taxa are not as well developed as those presented above for birds. Therefore, the habitat needs of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians will be discussed by broad taxonomic grouping.