Issue 13

New Products
from the Southern Research Station...

Natural Resources Inventory and Monitoring

1 Bentley, James W.; Johnson, Tony G. 2008. Alabama harvest and utilization study, 2008. Resour. Bull. SRS–141. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 24 p.

In 2008, a harvest and utilization study was conducted on 80 operations throughout Alabama. There were 2,100 total trees measured; 1,433 or 68 percent were softwood, while 667 or 32 percent were hardwood. Results from this study showed that 88 percent of the total softwood volume measured was utilized for a product, and 12 percent was left as logging residue. Seventy-five percent of the total hardwood volume measured was utilized for a product, while 25 percent was left as logging residue.

2 Bentley, James W.; Johnson, Tony G. 2008. South Carolina harvest and utilization study, 2006. Resour. Bull. SRS–140. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 24 p.

In 2006, a harvest and utilization study was conducted on 99 operations throughout South Carolina. There were 2,904 total trees measured; 1,763 or 61 percent were softwood, while 1,141 or 39 percent were hardwood. Results from this study showed that 87 percent of the total softwood volume measured was utilized for a product, and 13 percent was left as logging residue. Seventy-nine percent of the total hardwood volume measured was utilized for a product, while 21 percent was left as logging residue.

3 Johnson, Tony G.; Bentley, James W.; Howell, Michael. 2008. Historical trends of timber product output in the South. Resour. Bull. SRS–138. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 70 p.

Historical data of periodic canvasses of primary wood-using plants are presented for the 13 Southern States. They are Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Cubic-foot and standard volume tables are presented for production only. Production is the sum of timber harvested and used within a State, plus all roundwood exported to other U.S. States.

4 Johnson, Tony G.; Bentley, James W.; Howell, Michael. 2008. Oklahoma’s timber industry—an assessment of timber product output and use, 2005. Resour. Bull. SRS–136. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 28 p.

In 2005, roundwood output from Oklahoma’s forests totaled 119 million cubic feet. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers totaled 54 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residue was used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 61 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 37 million cubic feet. There were 107 primary processing plants operating in Oklahoma in 2005. Receipts totaled 149 million cubic feet.

5 Johnson, Tony G.; Steppleton, Carolyn D.; Howell, Michael. 2008. Trends in southern pulpwood production, 1953- 2006. Resour. Bull. SRS–139. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 53 p.

Southern pulpwood production has increased nearly fourfold from 16.2 million cords (43.9 million green tons) in 1953 to 64.7 million cords (170.9 million green tons) in 2006. Softwood roundwood production more than doubled in the same time period; however, softwood production expressed as a proportion of the total production has declined from 87 percent in 1953 to 49 percent in 2006. In contrast, hardwood roundwood production and production from residues of all types substantially increased. The average daily pulping capacity of southern mills climbed from 28,670 tons per day in 1953 to 125,093 tons per day in 2006. Southern mills accounted for 70 percent of the Nation’s total pulping capacity in 2006.

6 McCollum, Joseph M.; Cochran, Jamie K.; Rose, Anita K. 2008. A discrete global grid for photointerpretation. Res. Pap. SRS–44. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 7 p.

The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, collects its data in three phases. The first phase is collection of photointerpretation data or dot counts, the second phase is field collection of FIA plot data, and the third phase is collection of Forest Health Monitoring data. This paper describes the development of the phase 2 (P2) and phase 3 (P3) grids and discusses the creation of a new grid for phase 1 (P1), complete with an efficient indexing scheme, which is essentially equivalent to the historical dot count grids. The P2 grid consists of one field site per approximately 6,000 acres. To create the new P1 grid, we decomposed the P2 grid by a factor of 27 to obtain new proposed P1 photointerpretation cells of about 220 acres. The new grid can be used for initial photointerpretation points to determine area estimates for forested land.

7 Oswalt, Christopher M. 2008. Tennessee’s forest land area was stable 1999-2005 but early successional forest area declined. e-Res. Note SRS–15. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. [Not paged].

A new analysis of the most recent (2005) annualized moving average data for Tennessee indicates that the area of forest land in the State remained stable between 1999 and 2005. Although trends in forest land area vary from region to region within the State, Tennessee neither lost nor gained forest land between 1999 and 2005. However, Tennessee had more than 2.5 times as much early successional forest area in the early 1970s as in 2005. The decline in early successional forest area in Tennessee is a matter of concern.

Forest Ecosystem Restoration and Management

8 Abell, Margaret Stoughton. 1933. A glimpse of the Appalachian Forest Experiment Station. The Ames Forester. 21. 13–16.

The first woman forester employed at the Bent Creek Experimental Forest provides a brief review of the research conducted at the Appalachian Forest Experiment Station and the Bent Creek Experimental Forest. The author weaves a description of research projects and the cultural landscape as she discusses field work, wildlife, and the construction of Hardtimes Road.

9 Boerner, Ralph E.J.; Coates, Adam T. [sic]; Waldrop, Thomas A.; Yaussy, Daniel A. 2008. Assessing ecosystem restoration alternatives in eastern deciduous forests: the view from belowground. Restoration Ecology. 16(3): 425–434.

Both structural and functional approaches to restoration of eastern deciduous forests are becoming more common as recognition of the altered state of these ecosystems grows. In our study, structural restoration involves mechanically modifying the woody plant assemblage to a species composition, density, and community structure specified by the restoration goals. Functional restoration involves reintroducing dormant-season, lowseverity fire at intervals consistent with the historical condition. Our approach was to quantify the effects of such restoration treatments on soil organic carbon and soil microbial activity, as these are both conservative ecosystem attributes and not ones explicitly targeted by the restoration treatments themselves. Fire, mechanical thinning, and their combination all initially resulted in reduced soil organic carbon (C) content, C to nitrogen (N) ratio, and overall microbial activity (measured as acid phosphatase activity) in a study site in the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina, but only the effect on microbial activity persisted into the fourth posttreatment growing season. In contrast, in a similar forest in the Central Appalachian Plateau of Ohio, mechanical thinning resulted in increased soil organic C, decreased C:N ratio, and decreased microbial activity, whereas fire and the combination of fire and thinning did not have such effects. In addition, the effects in Ohio had dissipated prior to the fourth posttreatment growing season. Mechanical treatments are attractive in that they require only single entries; however, we see no indication that mechanical-structural restoration actually produced desired belowground changes. A single fire-based/ functional treatment also offered little restoration progress, but comparisons with long-term experimental fire studies suggest that repeated entries with prescribed fire at intervals of 3 to 8 years offer potential for sustainable restoration.

10 Bragg, Don C. 2006. Five years of change in an old-growth pinehardwood remnant in Ashley County, Arkansas. Journal of Arkansas Academy of Science. 60. 32–42.

Stand structure and dynamics were evaluated in an old-growth pinehardwood remnant, the Levi Wilcoxon Demonstration Forest near Hamburg, AR. Some of the pines in this stand exceed 200 years of age and are over 100 cm in diameter and 40 m tall. Over the last 5 years, a significant proportion of the pine overstory succumbed to windstorms, lightning, and beetle attack, especially following a particularly severe storm in May of 2003. The hardwood portions of this forest remained relatively constant, and shade-tolerant hardwoods increased their importance, further suggesting that this pine-dominated stand is gradually becoming a hardwood forest.

11 Bragg, Don C.; Weih, Robert C., Jr. 2007. Notable environmental features in some historical aerial photographs from Ashley County, AR. Journal of Arkansas Academy of Sciences. 61. 27–36.

A collection of 1939 aerial photographs from Ashley County, AR, was analyzed for historical environmental features. One noticeable feature in some parts of the county was the coverage of “sand blows,” formed by soil liquefaction following strong seismic activity. Also visible in these old photographs are the vestiges of the large prairies once common to this part of Arkansas. Within the grasslands and other areas cleared for farming, numerous “prairie mounds” are also visible across much of the county. Finally, almost 15 000 ha of virgin bottomland hardwoods along the Saline and Ouachita Rivers were noted. Prior to their clearing in the 1940s, these uncut forests may have sheltered the ivorybilled woodpecker.

12 Busse, Matt D.; Beattie, Samuel E.; Powers, Robert F. [and others]. 2006. Microbial community responses in forest mineral soil to compaction, organic matter removal, and vegetation control. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(3): 577–588. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientists Felipe G. Sanchez and Allan E. Tiarks coauthored this publication.]

We tested three disturbance hypotheses in young conifer plantations: H1— soil compaction and removal of surface organic matter produces sustained changes in microbial community size, activity, and structure in mineral soil; H2—microbial community characteristics in mineral soil are linked to the recovery of plant diversity; and H3—community responses are strongly modified by regional climate. Microbial biomass, respiration, carbon utilization, and phospholipid fatty acids were compared at two subtropical installations and one Mediterraneantype climate installation of the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity Study. Treatments included combinations of compaction (none vs. severe), organic matter removal (none vs. complete), and weed control (none vs. complete), plus an uncut reference stand. Weed control resulted in the only consistent decline or shift in microbial indices at the subtropical sites. At the Mediterraneantype climate site, overstory harvesting resulted in declines in microbial biomass, respiration, and fungal phospholipid fatty acids that far outweighed the effects of the soil disturbance treatments. Severe compaction had no effect on community size or activity at any site. Microbial communities were generally tolerant of postharvest soil disturbance, leading to a rejection of the experimental hypotheses, with the exception of a link between microorganisms and recovery of plant diversity (H2) at the subtropical sites.

13 Coates, T. Adam; Boerner, Ralph E.J.; Waldrop, Thomas A.; Yaussy, Daniel A. 2008. Soil nitrogen transformations under alternative management strategies in Appalachian forests. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72(2): 558–565.

Once subject to frequent fire and strongly nitrogen (N) limited, the forests of the Appalachian Mountains region of Eastern North America have experienced almost a century of fire suppression, and changes in tree species composition, understory density and composition, and accumulations of detritus have paralleled the changes in fire frequency. In an effort to restore these ecosystems and reduce wildfire hazard, alternative management strategies (prescribed fire, mechanical fuel reduction, and a combination of both) were implemented at study sites in Ohio and North Carolina as part of the fire and fire surrogate network study. As changes in N cycling resulting from these treatments could have potential negative impacts on forest health that might limit their usefulness as management alternatives, we monitored treatment effects on extractable total inorganic nitrogen (TIN), net N mineralization, net nitrification, and proportional nitrification during the growing season before treatment, the first growing season after treatment, and the third or fourth-growing season after treatment. Mechanical treatment resulted in increases in extractable TIN, N mineralization, and nitrification during the first posttreatment year in Ohio, and TIN was greater in the mechanical treatment and the mechanical+fire treatment during the third posttreatment year in North Carolina. Net N mineralization was reduced by fire alone in Ohio, but not in North Carolina. Nitrogen transformation rates were two to tenfold higher in Ohio than North Carolina, a difference that may partly result from the ericaceous shrub understory present in North Carolina but not in Ohio. Impacts of these treatments on N transformations were modest and for the most part transient, and would therefore not eliminate these treatments as viable management strategies for wildfire hazard reduction or ecosystem restoration.

14 Connor, Kristina; Schaefer, Gretchen; Donahoo, Jillian [and others]. 2007. Development, fatty acid composition, and storage of drupes and seeds from the endangered pondberry (Lindera melissifolia). Biological Conservation. 137(4): 489–496. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientists Margaret Devall, Emile Gardiner, Tracy Hawkins, Dan Wilson, Nathan Schiff, Paul Hamel, and Theodor Leininger coauthored this publication.]

Pondberry (Lindera melissifolia) drupes collected every 30 days after anthesis were examined for seed structure development, fatty acid composition, and storage potential. At 90 days after anthesis, a complete seed had formed within the drupe. Lauric acid increased in quantity as seed matured to become the dominant fatty acid. Oleic acid dominated the fatty acid profile for pulp. Fully hydrated seeds stored well for 16 months at both 4ºC and -2ºC. Although drying reduced germination when dried seeds were stored at 4ºC, seeds dried for 24 hours to a moisture content of 8.6 percent were successfully stored in liquid nitrogen.

15 Fleming, Robert L.; Powers, Robert F.; Foster, Neil W. [and others]. 2006. Effects of organic matter removal, soil compaction, and vegetation control on 5-year seedling performance: a regional comparison of long-term soil productivity sites. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(3): 529–550. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientists D. Andrew Scott, Kim H. Ludovici, Felipe G. Sanchez, and Allan E. Tiarks coauthored this publication.]

We examined fifth-year seedling response to soil disturbance and vegetation control at 42 experimental locations representing 25 replicated studies within the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity (LTSP) Program. These studies share a common experimental design while encompassing a wide range of climate, site conditions, and forest types. Wholetree harvest had limited effects on planted seedling performance compared with the effects of stem-only harvest (the control); slight increases in survival were usually offset by decreases in growth. Forest-floor removal improved seedling survival and increased growth in Mediterranean climates, but reduced growth on productive, nutrient-limited, warm–humid sites. Soil compaction with intact forest floors usually benefited conifer survival and growth, regardless of climate or species. Compaction combined with forest-floor removal generally increased survival, had limited effects on individual tree growth, and increased stand growth in Mediterranean climates. Vegetation control benefited seedling growth in all treatments, particularly on more productive sites, but did not affect survival or alter the relative impact of organic matter removal and compaction on growth. Organic matter removal increased aspen coppice densities and, as with compaction, reduced aspen growth.

16 Greenberg, Cathryn H.; Tanner, George W. 2005. Spatial and temporal ecology of oak toads (Bufo quercicus) on a Florida landscape. Herpetologica. 61(4): 422–434.

We used data from 10 years of continuous, concurrent monitoring of oak toads at eight isolated, ephemeral ponds in Florida longleaf pine-wiregrass uplands to address: (1): Did weather variables affect movement patterns of oak toads? (2) Did pond hydrology and the condition of surrounding uplands affect pond selection by adults or juvenile recruitment? (3) Were population trends evident? and (4) Did a classical metapopulation model best represent their population ecology? Of 4,076 oak toads captured, 92.2 percent were adults. Substantial (n > 30 exiting juveniles) recruitment occurred and only three times (once each at three ponds during 2 years). Males outnumbered females (average for all years 2.3:1). Most captures occurred during May to September. Adult captures during June to August increased with heavier rainfall but were not influenced by the durations of preceding dry periods. Movement patterns of metamorphs suggested that oak toads emigrated when moisture conditions became favorable. Pond use by adults correlated with maximum change in pond depth (May to September). Juvenile recruitment was negatively correlated with minimum pond depth and the number of weeks since a pond was last dry, and positively correlated with the maximum number of weeks a pond held water continuously. The number of breeding adults and juvenile recruitment were highest at ponds within the hardwoodinvaded upland matrix. The direction of most immigrations and emigrations was nonrandom, but movement occurred from all directions, and the mean direction of pond entry and exit did not always correspond. A total of 21.1 percent of individuals was recaptured; 13.3 percent of first captures were recaptured during the same year, and 7.7 percent during a subsequent year. Only 1.9 percent of captured oak toads moved among ponds, mostly within a distance of 132 m. We did not detect adult population trends over the 10 years studied. Presence or absence at ponds in any given year was a poor indicator of overall use. We saw little evidence of local extinction or “rescue,” but were unable to determine whether juveniles returned to natal ponds or colonized new ponds within a landscape to increase the probability of recruitment within the landscape neighborhood during at least some years and at some ponds, and to increase the likelihood of interpond movement.

17 Guldin, James M.; Iffrig, Greg F.; Flader, Susan L., eds. 2008. Pioneer forest—a half century of sustainable uneven-aged forest management in the Missouri Ozarks. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–108. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 123 p.

This collection of papers analyzes the Pioneer Forest, a privately owned 150,000- acre working forest in the Missouri Ozarks, on which the science and art of forest management has been practiced for more than 50 years. The papers discuss how this half century of management has contributed to forest restoration and sustainability on the forest itself and, through its example undergirded by a remarkable body of research, throughout the Ozark region and beyond.

18 Page-Dumroese, Deborah S.; Jurgensen, Martin F.; Tiarks, Allan E. [and others]. 2006. Soil physical property changes at the North American Long- Term Soil Productivity study sites: 1 and 5 years after compaction. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(3): 551–564. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientists Felipe G. Sanchez and D. Andrew Scott coauthored this publication.]

The impact of forest management operations on soil physical properties is important to understand, since management can significantly change site productivity by altering root growth potential, water infiltration and soil erosion, and water and nutrient availability. We studied soil bulk density and strength changes as indicators of soil compaction before harvesting and 1 and 5 years after harvest and site treatment on 12 of the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity sites. Severe soil compaction treatments approached root-limiting bulk densities for each soil texture, while moderate compaction levels were between severe and preharvest values. Immediately after harvesting, soil bulk density on the severely compacted plots ranged from 1 percent less than to 58 percent higher than preharvest levels across all sites. Soil compaction increases were noticeable to a depth of 30 cm. After 5 years, bulk density recovery on coarse-textured soils was evident in the surface (0 to 10 cm) soil, but recovery was less in the subsoil (10 to 30 cm depth); fine-textured soils exhibited little recovery. When measured as a percentage, initial bulk density increases were greater on fine-textured soils than on coarser textured soils and were mainly due to higher initial bulk density values in coarse-textured soils. Development of soil monitoring methods applicable to all soil types may not be appropriate, and more site-specific techniques may be needed for soil monitoring after disturbance.

19 Sanchez, Felipe G.; Tiarks, Allan E.; Kranabetter, J. Marty; [and others]. 2006. Effects of organic matter removal and soil compaction on fifth-year mineral soil carbon and nitrogen contents for sites across the United States and Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(3): 565–576.

This study describes the main treatment effects of organic matter removal and compaction and a split-plot effect of competition control on mineral soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pools. Treatment effects on soil C and N pools are discussed for 19 sites across 5 locations (British Columbia, northern Rocky Mountains, Pacific Southwest, and Atlantic and Gulf Coasts) that are part of the Long-Term Soil Productivity (LTSP) network and were established over 5 years ago. The sites cover a broad range of soil types, climatic conditions, and tree species. Most sites showed increased soil C and N levels 5 years after study establishment; however, the rate and magnitude of the changes varied between sites. Organic matter removal, compaction, or competition control did not significantly affect soil C and N contents at any site, except for the northern Rocky Mountain site, where competition control significantly affected soil C and N contents. The observation that, after 5 years, the soil C and N contents were not negatively affected by even the extreme treatments demonstrates the high resiliency of the soil, at least in the short term, to forest management perturbations.

20 Scott, D. Andrew; Tiarks, Allan. 2008. Dual-cropping loblolly pine for biomass energy and conventional wood products. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 32(1): 33–37.

The emerging wood bioenergy market may provide an incentive for landowners to manage their lands for traditional wood products and biomass for energy. We seeded loblolly pine like an agricultural crop between the rows of planted pine trees and remeasured the stand after 22 years. The seeded trees produced 28 tons per acre of wood biomass for energy at age 5, did not reduce planted tree growth even if left unharvested, and did not increase fertilizer requirements. The planted trees developed normally and could be harvested for traditional wood products, while the slash could be harvested for biomass energy.

Forest Values, Uses, and Policies

21 Clark, Alexander, III; Daniels, Richard F.; Jordan, Lewis. 2006. Juvenile/ mature wood transition in loblolly pine as defined by annual ring specific gravity, proportion of latewood, and microfibril angle. Wood and Fiber Science. 38(2): 292–299.

Intensively managed southern pines grow rapidly during the early years of the rotation, reach merchantable size at a younger age, and thus contain a significantly high proportion of juvenile wood. Juvenile wood is a cylinder of wood surrounding the pith, extending the length of all trees, and is produced by young cambium in the live active crown. Juvenile wood has lower stiffness and strength and more longitudinal shrinkage than mature wood, and thus is not as desirable for lumber production. Landowners and lumber manufactures need to understand the effect of forest management practices on juvenile wood formation. This paper evaluates two methods for determining the year of transition when a tree stops producing juvenile wood and starts to produce mature wood 4.5 feet above ground, based on annual ring specific gravity, proportion of latewood, and microfibril angle.

22 Clark, Alexander, III; Jordan, Lewis; Schimleck, Laurie; Daniels, Richard F. 2008. Effect of initial planting spacing on wood properties of unthinned loblolly pine at age 21. Forest Products Journal. 58(10): 78–83.

Young, fast growing, intensively managed plantation loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) contains a large proportion of juvenile wood that may not have the stiffness required to meet the design requirements for southern pine dimension lumber. An unthinned loblolly pine spacing study compass—april 2009 srs.fs.usda.gov 55 was sampled to determine the effect of initial spacing on wood stiffness, strength, and specific gravity (SG) at 8, 24, and 40 feet up the stem of chipping-saw loblolly pine grown using competition control and fertilization at planting plus fertilization at midrotation. Seven spacings ranging from 6 by 8 feet to 12 by 12 feet were sampled. Analysis of the effect of spacing at each height level showed significant differences in stiffness, strength, and SG among spacings at 8 feet, but did not vary significantly with spacing at 24 or 40 feet. Stiffness at 8 feet of trees planted at 12 by 12 feet was 12 to 14 percent lower than that of trees planted at 6 by 8, 6 by 10, and 6 by 12 feet because the 12 by 12 foot trees were growing rapidly in response to fertilization and less competition, and thus contained a larger diameter of juvenile wood characterized by wide microfibril angles and lower stiffness. Average weighted whole stem wood stiffness and strength decreased only 6 to 7 percent when spacing increased from 6 by 8 feet and 12 by 12 feet, and was not significantly different at the 0.05 level. Estimated stiffness, strength, and SG at 8, 24, and 40 feet decreased significantly with increasing tree height because of increased juvenile wood in the upper stem.

23 Grace, J. McFero, III; Elliot, W.J. 2008. Determining soil erosion from roads in the Coastal Plain of Alabama. In: Environmental connection 08, Proceedings of conference 39. Steamboat Springs, CO: International Erosion Control Association: 1–12.

Sediment deposition below forest road sections was measured and modeled in the Coastal Plain on the Conecuh National Forest near Andalusia, AL. Visible sediment deposition zones were tracked along the stormwater flow path to the most remote location as a means of quantifying soil loss from road sections. Volumes of sediment in deposition zones were determined by depth and deposition area measurements. The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) was used to predict deposition in buffers and sediment leaving buffers from these forest road sections. The study found that of the 16 road segments analyzed, the average road segment length was 45 m (148 feet), and the average quantity of sediment deposited onto the forest floor from road sections was 2.5 tons. The WEPP: road predictions were not significantly different from the observed sediment deposition. This research effort provides information to quantify the magnitude of soil erosion and validate the applicability of WEPP predictions from typical Coastal Plain forest roads in the Southern United States.

24 Grace, Johnny M., III. 2008. Determining the range of acceptable forest road erosion. ASABE Pap. 083984. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE: 1–11.

The majority of erosion from forest lands continues to be attributed to forest roads. Previous research over the past 70 years has presented many questions concerning the impact of roads on forest systems. Research has presented some information on the effect of forest road erosion and the benefit of best management practices in controlling erosion. However, one question that needs to be addressed in designing acceptable road systems is, “What is the range of acceptable forest road erosion losses?” This paper presents a summary of forest road erosion losses and their effects on forest systems from various geographical regions considering road design, climatic factors, and management regimes. This paper also provides information to aid in understanding the range of erosion losses that are or have been acceptable based on previous work.

25 Grace, Johnny M., III. 2008. Influence of storm characteristics on soil erosion and storm runoff. ASABE Pap. 083979. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE: 1–11.

The volume and sediment concentrations of stormwater runoff emanating from forest roads can be greatly influenced by storm characteristics, road management practices, and/or the interaction of management practices and subsequent storm events. In an attempt to gain a better understanding of storm characteristics on storm runoff, we collected field data from three field experiments in the Appalachian Highlands of northwest Alabama, the Coastal Plain of southeast Alabama, and the Blue Ridge Mountains of northeast Georgia. Storm characteristics explained as much as 40 percent of the variability in runoff concentrations and soil erosion losses from the field experiments. Total precipitation, average rainfall intensity, and maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity were detected as the most influential storm characteristics in determining soil erosion based on the field experimental data from Coastal Plain and Appalachian forest roads.

26 Hwang, Chin-yin; Hse, Chungyun; Shupe, Todd F. 2008. Effects of raw materials on the properties of wood fiber-polyethylene composites—part 3: effect of a compatibilizer and wood adhesive on the interfacial adhesion of wood/plastic composites. Forest Products Journal. 58(5): 66–72.

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of maleated polypropylene compatibilizer on the interfacial properties of wood and polyolefins. Birch wood dowels containing an adhesive applied on the surface were embedded in molten plastic matrices using specially designed jigs. The three plastics investigated included low-density polyethylene (LFPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and polypropylene (PP). The four adhesives used were urea formaldehyde (UF), phenol formaldehyde (PF), isocyanate (ISO), and a control group that did not contain any adhesive. A low-molecular weight emulsion type MAPP, Epolene (E-43) was used at concentrations of 0 (control), 10 percent, 20 percent, 30 percent, and 40 percent. Modified singlefiber pull-out tests were performed to investigate the interrelationships between a four-component system of woodadhesive- compatibilizer-plastic, simulating the interphase of a wood-thermoplastic composite. The interfacial shear strength as measured by the modified single-fiber pull-out test indicated that the overall average interfacial shear strength was highest in PP and lowest in LDPE. ISObonded LDPE without E-43 treatment showed the highest interfacial shear strength among all other LDPE composites. The E-43-treated wood surfaces without adhesive displayed overall superior performance over all adhesive bonded LLDPE. Addition of E-43 greatly enhanced the interfacial shear strength for all plastic types, except for ISO-bonded LDPE and LLDPE. The effect of E-43 was most pronounced in PP and less in LDPE and LLDPE. Adhesive failure prevailed in LDPE and LLDPE composites, while PP showed predominately cohesive failures in the wood dowel or in the plastic matrix.

27 Li, Ruhong; Buongiorno, J.; Turner, J.A.; Prestemon, J. 2008. Long-term effects of eliminating illegal logging on the world forest industries, trade, and inventory. Forest Policy and Economics. 10(7-8): 480–490.

We assessed the impact on the world forest sector of a progressive elimination of illegal logging. The analysis compared predictions from 2007 to 2020, with and without a gradual reduction of illegally logged industrial roundwood from 2007 to 2011. A large part of the curtailment of timber supply due to the stoppage of illegal logging would be compensated by increased legal production incited by higher prices. As a result, without illegal logging, the world annual production of industrial roundwood would decrease by no more than 1 percent, even though it would decrease by up to 8 percent in developing countries. World prices would rise by 1.5 to 3.5 percent for industrial roundwood and by 0.5 to 2 percent for processed products, depending on the assumption on illegal logging rates. World consumer expenditures for wood products and producer revenues would rise by 1 to 2 percent without illegal logging. World value added in forest industries would remain the same. However, the changes in consumer expenditures would be more than double the changes in producer revenues in countries dependent on illegally logged timber of domestic or foreign origin such as Indonesia and China. Symmetrically, changes in producer revenues would be almost twice the changes in consumer expenditures in countries with little illegal logging and efficient industries, such as Canada, Germany, and the United States. Value added in forest industries would decrease most in countries with heavy illegal logging (12 percent in Indonesia and up to 9 percent in Brazil), and it would increase most in Germany, Canada (4 percent), and the United States (2 percent). Without illegal logging, the world forest inventory would increase slightly, as the increase in developing countries would more than compensate the decrease in developed countries.

28 Mitchell, Dana; Gallagher, Tom. 2008. Impacts of extended working hours in logging. ASABE Pap. 083923. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE: 1–7.

We have researched existing literature to identify possible actions that logging business owners can take to reduce the impact of extended working hours on their employees. Fatigue and mental burnout associated with working long shifts may be reduced by scheduling two or more substantial rest breaks during a shift. Seated exercises or short breaks where operators dismount equipment may relieve the physical impacts of sedentary machine operation. Encouraging employees to try alternative sleep schedules may help workers adjust to late shift working hours. Safety plans should be revised to provide better communication between machine operators during the late shift, and to address additional personal protective equipment for late shift workers. Interviews for hiring new employees should include questions that are structured to find personality traits that may help identify applicants who are more suited for the late shift. Social impacts of permanent late shift assignments may be reduced by offering a flexible schedule where employees can change schedules when needed. Human factors impacts of implementing extended working hours in logging is often overlooked, with the majority of the early planning focused on the financial aspects of implementation. The results of this study may be useful to those considering implementing extended working hours and also to those who have already begun implementation.

29 Mitchell, Dana; Seixas, Fernando; Klepac, John. 2008. Modified Precision- Husky Progrind H-3045 for chipping biomass. Forest Operations Review. 10(4). [Not paged].

A specific size of whole tree chip was needed to comill wood chips with coal. The specifications are stringent because chips must be mixed with coal, as opposed to a cofiring process. In cofiring, two raw products are conveyed separately to a boiler. In comilling, such as at Alabama Power’s Plant Gadsden, the chip and coal mix must pass through a series of conveyors, a pulverizer, and pipes to the furnace. Handling specifications require smooth cut edges, as opposed to shredded edges. In a partnership involving several entities, including the National Forests in Alabama, Alabama Power Company, Forest-Based Economic Development Services, Precision-Husky, the Forest Service Southern Research Station, and others, a trial was conducted to determine if wood chips could be created in a onestep inwoods process that would meet the stringent requirements of the power plant. Precision-Husky of Leeds, AL, volunteered to work with the partnership to manufacture a machine that would create the chips to the stringent specifications needed.

30 Prestemon, Jeffrey P.; Donovan, Geoffrey H. 2008. Forecasting resourceallocation decisions under climate uncertainty: fire suppression with assessment of net benefits of research. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 90(4): 1118–1129.

Making input decisions under climate uncertainty often involves two-stage methods that use expensive and opaque transfer functions. This article describes an alternative, single-stage approach to such decisions using forecasting methods. The example shown is for preseason fire suppression resource contracting decisions faced by the Forest Service. Two-stage decision tools have been developed for these decisions, and we compare the expected gains to the agency, in terms of reduced personnel costs, of the singlestage model over the two-stage model, existing hiring decisions, and decisions that would have been made given perfect foresight about wildfire activity. Our analysis demonstrates the potential gains to versions of our single-stage model over existing hiring decisions, equivalent to a benefit-cost ratio of 22. The research also identified additional gains accruing from imposing biases on the single-stage model associated with asymmetric penalties from contracting decisions.

Threats to Forest Health

31 Coulston, John W.; Koch, Frank H.; Smith, William D.; Sapio, Frank J. 2008. Invasive forest pest surveillance: survey development and reliability. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 38(9): 2422– 2433.

Worldwide, a large number of potential pest species are introduced to locations outside their native ranges; under the best possible prevention scheme, some are likely to establish one or more localized populations. A comprehensive early detection and rapid-response protocol calls for surveillance to determine if a pest has invaded additional locations outside its original area of introduction. In this manuscript, we adapt and spatially extend a two-stage sampling technique to determine the required sample size to substantiate freedom from an invasive pest with a known level of certainty. The technique, derived from methods for sampling livestock herds for disease presence, accounts for the fact that pest activity may be low at a coarse spatial scale (i.e., among forested landscapes) but high at a fine scale (i.e., within a given forested landscape). We illustrate the utility of the approach by generating a national-scale survey based on a risk map for a hypothetical forest pest species threatening the United States. These techniques provide a repeatable, cost-effective, practical framework for developing broad-scale surveys to substantiate freedom from nonnative invasive forest pests with known statistical power.

32 Coulston, John W.; Riitters, Kurt H.; McRoberts, Ronald E. [and others]. 2006. True versus perturbed forest inventory plot locations for modeling: a simulation study. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(3): 801–807. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientist William D. Smith coauthored this publication.]

Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis plot information is widely used for timber inventories, forest health assessments, and environmental risk analyses. With few exceptions, true plot locations are not revealed; the plot coordinates are manipulated to obscure the location of field plots and thereby preserve plot integrity. The influence of perturbed plot locations on the development and accuracy of statistical models is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the influence is related to the spatial structure of the data used in the models. For ordinary kriging we examined the difference in mean square error based on true and perturbed plot locations across a range of spatial autocorrelations. We also examined the difference in mean square error for regression models developed with true and perturbed plot locations across a range of spatial autocorrelations and spatial resolutions. Perturbing plot locations did not significantly influence the accuracy of kriging estimates, but in some situations linear regression model development and accuracy were significantly influenced. Unless the independent variable has high spatial autocorrelation, only coarse spatial resolution data should be used to develop linear regression models.

33 Josserand, S.A.; Potter, K.M.; Echt, C.S.; Nelson, C.D. 2008. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers for Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana). Molecular Ecology Resources. 8(6): 1371–1374.

We describe the isolation and characterization of 31 polymorphic di- and trinucleotide microsatellite marker loci for Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana Englem.). In addition, primer pairs for 16 loci amplified scoreable alleles in 6 other Tsuga species. In Eastern North America, both Carolina hemlock and eastern hemlock [Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.] populations are declining due to infestation by hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). The markers described here should enhance population genetic studies of hemlocks, providing valuable information for conserving and restoring these important forest tree species.

34 Linzer, R.E.; Otrosina, W.J.; Gonthier, P. [and others]. 2008. Inferences on the phylogeography of the fungal pathogen Heterobasidion annosum, including evidence of interspecific horizontal genetic transfer and of human-mediated, long-range dispersal. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 46(3): 844–862.

Fungi in the basidiomycete species complex Heterobasidion annosum are significant root-rot pathogens of conifers throughout the Northern Hemisphere. We utilize a multilocus phylogenetic approach to examine hypotheses regarding the evolution and divergence of two Heterobasidion taxa associated with pines: the Eurasian H. annosum sensu stricto and the North American H. annosum P intersterility group (ISG). Using DNA sequence information from portions of two nuclear and two mitochondrial loci, we infer phylogenetic relationships via parsimony, Bayesian, and medianjoining network analysis. Analysis of isolates representative of the entire known geographic range of the two taxa results in monophyletic sister Eurasian and North American lineages, with North America further subdivided into eastern and western clades. Genetically anomalous isolates from the Italian presidential estate of Castelporziano are always part of a North American clade and group with Eastern North America, upholding the hypothesis of recent, anthropogenically mediated dispersal. P ISG isolates from Mexico have phylogenetic affinity with both Eastern and Western North America. Results for an insertion in the mitochondrial rDNA suggest this molecule was obtained from the Heterobasidion S ISG, a taxon sympatric with the S ISG in Western North America. These data are compatible with an Eastern Eurasian origin of the species, followed by dispersal of two sister taxa into Western Eurasia and into Eastern North America over a Beringean land bridge, a pattern echoed in the phylogeography of other coniferassociated basidiomycetes.

35 Otrosina, W.J.; Kliejunas, J.T.; Smith, S. [and others]. 2007. Black stain root disease studies on ponderosa pine— parameters and disturbance treatments affecting infection and mortality. Acta Silvatica Lignaria Hungarica. Special edition: foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of forest trees: 247–251. [Editor’s note: Southern Research Station scientist Shi- Jean Susana Sung and biological science technician Catharine Cook coauthored this publication.]

Black stain root disease of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug. Ex Laws.), caused by Leptographium wageneri var. ponderosum (Harrington & Cobb), is increasing on many eastside Sierra Nevada pine stands in northeastern California. The disease is spread from tree to tree via root contacts and grafts, but overland spread of the disease is most likely due to woody rootfeeding bark beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) vectors. Soil and site relations along with disturbance are factors in the etiology of the disease. Thinning and prescribed burning are important silvicultural tools in maintaining forest health in eastside pine stands. Because soil compaction is a concern in many sites, skid trails are treated by subsoiling equipment to alleviate compaction where this might be an issue. However, little is known of the effects of these silvicultural treatments on incidence of black stain root disease on sites with high disease risk. Because the woody root-feeding insects that vector the disease respond to disturbance, understanding consequences of different disturbances resulting from silvicultural treatments is essential for devising management plans to mitigate disease impact. This paper summarizes preliminary results from two long-term studies initiated in 1996 and 2000 to address these issues.

36 Perry, Roger W.; Thill, Ronald E. 2008. Diurnal roosts of male evening bats (Nycticeius humeralis) in diversely managed pine-hardwood forests. American Midland Naturalist. 160(2): 374–385.

Forest management affects the quality and availability of roost sites for forest-dwelling bats. However, little is known about roost selection by evening bats (Nycticeius humeralis) in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, and roost selection by males specifically has not been studied. Forty-five roosts for male evening bats were located using radio transmitters. Bats roosted in a diverse array of places, including cavities within large live and dead pines (Pinus echinata) and small deciduous trees (less than 10 cm in diameter). Sixty-three percent of roosts were in dead trees, 29 percent in live trees, and 8 percent were on or near the ground. One roost was located in tree foliage, one in leaf litter, and one was underground in a smallmammal burrow. All roosts were in forests dominated by large trees (greater than 50 years old), and 71 percent of all roosts were in patches of forest that had not been thinned, possibly because these closed-canopy forests provided cooler sites which allowed more frequent use of torpor during summer. Our results suggest that management intended to provide optimal roosting sites for females may not be applicable to male evening bats.

37 Perry, Roger W.; Thill, Ronald E. 2008. Roost selection by big brown bats in forests of Arkansas: importance of pine snags and open forest habitats to males. Southeastern Naturalist. 7(4): 607–618.

Roosts are important to the survival of bats. Although the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) is abundant throughout the United States, little is known about roosting behavior in forests of the Southeast, and even less is known about roosting by males. Thirty-four roosts of big brown bats were located using radiotransmitters in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. All roosts for both sexes were in dead shortleaf pines (Pinus echinata), and nearly all roosts were under loose bark. Roosts of males were located in open forests that were less structurally complex than the surrounding forest. Forests where roosts were located had reduced canopy cover, and most areas had been thinned and burned. Although unthinned forests surrounding streams were abundant throughout the study area, big brown bats rarely roosted in those areas. Maintaining a supply of large (greater than 15 cm in diameter) dead pines in relatively open forest habitats, including areas undergoing partial harvest, would provide roosting habitat for male big brown bats in the Ouachita Mountains.

38 Riitters, Kurt H.; Wickham, James D.; Wade, Timothy G. 2009. An indicator of forest dynamics using a shifting landscape mosaic. Ecological Indicators. 9(1): 107–117.

The composition of a landscape is a fundamental indicator in landcover pattern assessments. The objective of this paper was to evaluate a landscape composition indicator called “landscape mosaic” as a framework for interpreting landcover dynamics over a 9-year period in a 360,000-km2 study area in the Southern United States. The indicator classified a land parcel into one of 19 possible landscape mosaic classes according to the proportions of natural, developed, and agriculture landcover types in a surrounding 4.41-ha neighborhood. Using land-cover maps from remote sensing, the landscape mosaics were calculated for each 0.09-ha pixel in the study area in 1996 and 2005. Mosaic transition matrices estimated from the pixel change data were then used to develop two Markov chain models. A “landscape mosaic” model was a temporal model of the shifting landscape mosaic, based on the probability of landscape mosaic change for all pixels. A “forest security” model was the same, except that the Markov states were defined by both the landscape mosaic and the landcover of each pixel, which allowed interpreting forest landcover dynamics in the context of a shifting landscape mosaic. In the forest security model, the overall percentage of forest decreased from 33 percent in 2005 to 17 percent at steadystate, and there was little change in the relative distribution of existing forest area among landscape mosaic classes. In contrast, the landscape mosaic steadystate was reached later, and indicated that a maximum of 10 percent of total area was available for forest. The implication was that forest security depended ultimately on the dynamics of the landscape mosaics that contained forest, not on forest dynamics within those landscape mosaics.

39 Sun, Ge; McNulty, Steven G.; Moore Myers, Jennifer A.; Cohen, Erika C. 2008. Impacts of multiple stresses on water demand and supply across the Southeastern United States. Journal of American Water Resources Association. 44(6): 1441–1457.

Predictions from two global circulation models, one land use change model, and one human population model were integrated to project future water supply stress in 2020. We found that population increase greatly stressed water supply in metropolitan areas. Predicted land use and landcover changes will have little effect on water quantity and water supply-water demand relationship. Climate changes had the most pronounced effects on regional water supply and demand. The simulation system developed by this study is useful for water resource planners to address water shortage problems such as those experienced during 2007 in the study region.

40 Sun, G.; Noormets, A.; Chen, J.; McNulty, S.G. 2008. Evapotranspiration estimates from eddy covariance towers and hydrologic modeling in managed forests in northern Wisconsin, U.S.A. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 148: 257–267.

Direct measurement of ecosystem evapotranspiration (ET) by the eddy covariance method and simulation modeling were employed to quantify the growing season (May to October) (ET) of eight forest ecosystems representing a management gradient in dominant forest types and age classes in the Upper Great Lakes Region from 2002 to 2003. Field data suggested that there were no significant differences in growing season (June to September) ET/precipitation ratio among all ecosystems in 2002. Stand leaf area index alone did not explain ecosystem ET at the landscape scale. Seasonal ET values measured by the eddy covariance method were significantly lower than those simulated with a processbased hydrologic model, MIKE SHE. Our integration approach combined with field measurements and simulation modeling proved to be useful in providing a full picture of the effects of forest cover type change on landscape scale water balance at multiple temporal scales. The ET procedure used in the MIKE SHE model needs improvement to fully account for the effects of vapor pressure deficit on tree transpiration. Seasonal distributions of ET coincided with precipitation in the growing season, when fluxes estimated by both field and models were the highest. The simulation model suggests that removal of conifer forests in the study region may reduce ET immediately by 113 to 30 mm/ year or about 20 percent, but our field data suggests that ET can recover within 8 to 25 years from regrowth of hardwood forests.

41 Wickham, James D.; Riitters, Kurt H.; Wade, Timothy G.; Homer, Collin. 2008. Temporal change in fragmentation of continental U.S. forests. Landscape Ecology. 23(8): 891–898.

Changes in forest ecosystem function and condition arise from changes in forest fragmentation. Previous studies estimated forest fragmentation for the continental United States. In this study, new temporal landcover data from the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) were used to estimate changes in forest fragmentation at multiple scales for the continental United States. Early and late dates for the landcover change data were ca. 1992 and ca. 2001. Forest density was used as a multiscale index of fragmentation by measuring the proportion of forest in neighborhoods ranging in size from 2.25 to 5314.41 ha. The multiscale forest density maps were classified using thresholds of 40 percent (patch), 60 percent (dominant), and 90 percent (interior) to analyze temporal change of fragmentation. The loss of dominant and interior forest showed distinct scale effects, whereas loss of patch forest was much less scale dependent. Dominant forest loss doubled from the smallest to the largest spatial scale, while interior forest loss increased by approximately 80 percent from the smallest to the second largest spatial scale, then decreased somewhat. At the largest spatial scale, losses of dominant and interior forest were 5 and 10 percent, respectively, of their ca. 1992 amounts. In contrast, patch forest loss increased by only 25 percent from the smallest to largest spatial scale. These results indicate that continental U.S. forests were sensitive to forest loss because of their already fragmented state. Forest loss would have had to occur in an unlikely spatial pattern in order to avoid the proportionately greater impact on dominant and interior forest at larger spatial scales.

Forest Watershed Science

42 Bentrup, G. 2008. Conservation buffers: design guidelines for buffers, corridors, and greenways. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–109. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 110 p.

Over 80 illustrated design guidelines for conservation buffers are synthesized and developed from a review of over 1,400 research publications. Each guideline describes a specific way that a vegetative buffer can be applied to protect soil, improve air and water quality, enhance fish and wildlife habitat, produce economic products, provide recreation opportunities, or beautify the landscape. These sciencebased guidelines are presented as easy-tounderstand rules-of-thumb for facilitating the planning and designing of conservation buffers in rural and urban landscapes. The online version of the guide includes the reference publication list as well as other buffer design resources: www. bufferguidelines.net.

43 Commens-Carson, Amy M.; Mathis, Alicia. 2007. Responses of three darter species (genus Etheostoma) to chemical alarm cues from conspecifics and congeners. Copeia. 2007(4): 838–843.

Several species of darters (Etheostoma) possess a chemical alarm substance, but it is unknown how widely these compounds occur. Alarm substances are released during predatory attacks when the skin is abraded, causing an antipredatory response in conspecifics or even other species in the same prey guild. We exposed redfin (E. whipplei), fantail (E. flabellare), and rainbow (E. caeruleum) darters to skin extracts from conspecifics and congeners. Redfin and rainbow darters reacted with a fright response upon exposure to skin extracts from conspecifics and each other. Neither rainbow nor redfin darters responded to fantail skin extract. Fantail darters did not respond to skin extracts from congeners or conspecifics. We demonstrated that chemical alarm signals are not ubiquitous for the genus Etheostoma.

44 Coyle, D.R.; Coleman, M.D.; Durant, J.A.; Newman, L.A. 2006. Multiple factors affect pest and pathogen damage on 31 Populus clones in South Carolina. Biomass & Bioenergy. 30(8–9): 759–768.

Populus species and hybrids have many practical applications, but there is a paucity of data regarding selections that perform well in the Southeastern United States. We compared pest susceptibility of 31 Populus clones over 3 years in South Carolina, USA. Cuttings were planted in spring 2001 on two study sites. Clones planted in the bottomland site received granular fertilizer yearly and irrigation the first 2 years only, while those on the sandy, upland site received irrigation and fertilization throughout each growing season. Foliar damage by the cottonwood leaf beetle (Chrysomela scripta), cottonwood leafcurl mite (Tetra lobulifera), and poplar leaf rust (Melampsora medusae) was visually monitored several times each growing season. Damage ratings differed significantly among clones, and clonal rankings changed from year to year. Irrigation increased C. scripta and M. medusae damage, but had no effect on T. lobulifera damage. Certain clones received greater pest damage at a particular study site. Temporal damage patterns were evident among individual clones and on each site. Based on this preliminary 3-year study of pest damage levels, we would recommend clones NM6, Eridano, I45/51, OP367, 15–29, 7302801, 7300502, and Kentucky 8 for use in this region.

45 Dosskey, M.G.; Helmers, M.J.; Eisenhauer, D.E. 2008. A design aid for determining width of filter strips. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 63(4): 232–241.

Strategies for water-quality improvement in developed landscapes often include vegetated filter strips. Wider strips work better for stabilizing soil and promoting runoff infiltration and sediment deposition, but widening beyond what is necessary can add to costs and create resistance to adoption by landowners. This graphical design aid, developed from simulations using a process-based mathematical model, is accurate enough for developing cost-effective site designs and easy enough to use for making quick determinations on a large number and variety of sites. By quantitatively relating width to level of performance, this tool will enable watershed planners to develop appropriate designs where specific water-quality targets must be met.

46 Gardiner, Emile; Stanturf, John; Leininger, Theodor [and others]. 2008. Establishing a research and demonstration area initiated by managers: the Sharkey Restoration Research and Demonstration site. Journal of Forestry. 106(7): 363–369.

This article documents our experience with establishment of a forest restoration research and demonstration area in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV), a region experiencing extensive afforestation. Although basic plantation establishment techniques had been developed and applied on small areas, managers lacked critical knowledge to implement operational-scale practices. This 1,700- acre research and demonstration area has provided a science-based resource for educating landowners, managers, and the general public; has served as a platform for scientists and managers to cooperate on development of innovative forest restoration approaches; and has provided a venue for debate among policymakers actively promoting forest restoration in the LMAV.

47 Hawkins, Tracy S.; Baskin, Jerry M.; Baskin, Carol C. 2007. Seed morphology, germination phenology, and capacity to form a seed bank in six herbaceous layer Apiaceae species of the eastern deciduous forest. Castanea. 72(1): 8–14.

We compared seed mass, seed morphology, and long-term germination phenology of three monocarpic (M) and three polycarpic Apiaceae species. Seeds of the six species differed considerably in mass, shape, and ornamentation. Mean seed masses were ranked Cryptotaenia canadensis (M) < Thaspium barbinode (P) < Sanicula canadensis (M) < S. gregaria (P) < Osmorhiza claytonii (P) < S. trifoliata (M). Germination peaks occurred in the first or second spring following sowing. Germination of some seeds was delayed until the sixth year. Potential to form a (modified) type III or (modified) type IV persistent soil seed bank was not related to seed mass, shape, or ornamentation. Germination peak was related to time of dispersal and type of seed dormancy.

48 Lockhart, Brian Roy; Gardiner, Emile; Leininger, Theodor; Stanturf, John. 2008. A stand-development approach to oak afforestation in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 32(3): 120– 129.

Oak (Quercus spp.) afforestation in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley has involved planting 1-year-old bareroot seedlings on a relatively wide spacing in single-species stands or planting light-seeded species with oaks to form mixed-species stands. In the former case, the developing single-species stands have limited future management options because they do not provide structures that favor quality wildlife habitat or quality sawtimber production. In the latter case, species mixtures are being planted with little knowledge of subsequent stand development, leading to an inability to predict future stand composition for management purposes. In this article, we present a system to determine bottomland tree planting mixtures that will create single-cohort, mixed-species stands with a component of high-quality bottomland oak. Using individual species ecological life-history characteristics, such as early height growth pattern, relative twig diameter and durability, and developmental patterns in natural stands, bottomland species are rated for their ability to provide beneficial training effects that will lead to the development of quality oak boles. Incorporating such a system to determine species value in mixtures should provide an increased number of future options to meet explicit management objectives and promote improved restoration of bottomland hardwood ecosystems.

49 Meier, Calvin E.; Stanturf, John A.; Gardiner, Emile S. 2006. Litterfall in the hardwood forest of a minor alluvial floodplain. Forest Ecology and Management. 234: 60–77.

Within mature deciduous forests, annual development of foliar biomass is a major component of aboveground net primary production and nutrient demand. As litterfall, this same foliage becomes a dominant annual transfer of biomass and nutrients to the detritus pathway. We report litterfall transfers of a mature bottomland hardwood forest in a minor alluvial floodplain within the middle Coastal Plain physiographic province of central Louisiana, USA. Climate is humid subtropical. Floodplain forests of minor alluvial streams may account for nearly half the remaining acreage of bottomland forests in the Southeastern USA and differ markedly from those of major alluvial rivers and deep-water swamps. For a 3-year period, litterfall magnitude, components, leaf species, and timing were monitored by monthly collection of materials from litterfall collectors. Variations in litterfall transfers across 10 study plots and their relationships to forest parameters are evaluated. Mean transfers of total litterfall, leaf fall, reproductive structures, fine wood, and other litterfall were 816, 512, 130, 98, and 76 g m-2 year-1, respectively. Quercus pagoda Raf., Q. nigra L., and Liquidambar styraciflua L. accounted for an average of 49 percent of annual leaf fall, with 11 tree species and canopy vines accounting for 94 percent of total annual leaf fall. A total of 38 species and genera contributed to total leaf fall. Variation in total litterfall and leaf fall transfers across the alluvial bottom were related to size of overstory trees and their species composition. Higher and more consistent mass transfers of reproductive structures were observed than previously reported for upland hardwood stands.

50 Nelson, John L.; Groninger, John W.; Battaglia, Loretta L.; Ruffner, Charles M. 2008. Bottomland hardwood forest recovery following tornado disturbance and salvage logging. Forest Ecology and Management. 256(3): 388–395.

This research examines bottomland hardwood forest recovery following differing levels of canopy and soil disturbance following a tornado and subsequent salvage harvesting. Forest recovery was rapid for all disturbance types and intensities, with composition of developing stands related to disturbance intensity. Vegetation diversity was greatest on the most highly disturbed plots. Salvage harvesting restored microtopography that had been eliminated by decades of agricultural land use prior to establishment of the previous stand. This study increased our understanding of bottomland hardwood forest development and demonstrated that salvage harvesting can be used to promote desirable forest conditions in a conservation management setting.

 

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